Ch 2Biological Classificationजीव जगत का वर्गीकरणBiological Classification
Two-kingdom to five-kingdom system; Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia; viruses, viroids, prions and lichens.दो जगत से पाँच जगत प्रणाली; मोनेरा, प्रोटिस्टा, कवक, पादप, प्राणी; विषाणु, वाइरॉइड, प्रिओन और लाइकेन।Two-kingdom se five-kingdom system; Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia; viruses, viroids, prions aur lichens.
Didn’t understand a paragraph? Tap it (or its Explain button) → Hindi / Hinglish / Simple English.कोई पैराग्राफ़ समझ नहीं आया? उस पर (या समझें बटन पर) टैप करें → अंग्रेज़ी / हिंग्लिश।Koi paragraph samajh nahi aaya? Us par (ya Samjho button par) tap kijiye → Hindi / English.
Diagrams in this chapterइस अध्याय के डायग्रामIs chapter ke diagrams
▶ Animate: bacterial shapes and fission▶ एनिमेट: जीवाणुओं के आकार और विखंडन▶ Animate: bacteria ke shapes aur fissionAnimated
▶ Animate: virus structure and infection▶ एनिमेट: विषाणु की संरचना और संक्रमण▶ Animate: virus ki structure aur infectionAnimated · 3D
Bacteria of different shapesविभिन्न आकार के बैक्टीरियाBacteria of different shapesFig 2.1
Tobacco mosaic virus and bacteriophageतंबाकू मोज़ेक वायरस और बैक्टीरियोफेजTobacco mosaic virus and bacteriophageFig 2.6In this chapter (NCERT sections)इस अध्याय में (NCERT खंड)Is chapter mein (NCERT sections)
- 2.1Kingdom Moneraमोनेरा जगतKingdom Monera
- 2.2Kingdom Protistaप्रोटिस्टा जगतKingdom Protista
- 2.3Kingdom Fungiकवक जगतKingdom Fungi
- 2.4Kingdom Plantaeपादप जगतKingdom Plantae
- 2.5Kingdom Animaliaप्राणि जगतKingdom Animalia
- 2.6Viruses, viroids, prions and lichensविषाणु, वाइरॉइड, प्रिओन और लाइकेनViruses, viroids, prions aur lichens
- ★Yaad rakho — quick revisionयाद रखो — झटपट दोहरावYaad rakho — quick revision
- ⚠Common mistakesआम गलतियाँCommon mistakes
- ✎NCERT questions — short answersNCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तरNCERT questions — short answers
- 🎯Quizक्विज़Quiz
Aristotle was the first to classify on a scientific basis: plants into trees, shrubs and herbs; animals into those with red blood and without. Linnaeus made the two-kingdom system — Plantae and Animalia. It did not separate prokaryotes from eukaryotes, unicellular from multicellular, or photosynthetic (green algae) from non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms.अरस्तू ने सबसे पहले वैज्ञानिक आधार पर वर्गीकरण किया: पौधों को वृक्ष, झाड़ी और शाक में; प्राणियों को लाल रुधिर वाले और बिना लाल रुधिर वाले में। लीनियस ने दो जगत प्रणाली बनाई — प्लांटी और एनिमेलिया। इसमें प्रोकैरियोटी-यूकैरियोटी, एककोशिकीय-बहुकोशिकीय और प्रकाश-संश्लेषी (हरे शैवाल)-अप्रकाश-संश्लेषी (कवक) में भेद नहीं था।Aristotle ne pehli baar scientific basis par classify kiya: plants ko trees, shrubs, herbs mein; animals ko red blood wale aur bina red blood wale mein. Linnaeus ka two-kingdom system — Plantae aur Animalia. Isme prokaryote-eukaryote, unicellular-multicellular aur photosynthetic (green algae)–non-photosynthetic (fungi) ka fark nahi tha.Aristotle was the first person to classify living things on a scientific basis. He divided plants into trees, shrubs and herbs. He divided animals into two groups: those with red blood and those without it. Later, Linnaeus made the two-kingdom system — Plantae (plants) and Animalia (animals). But this system had problems. It did not separate prokaryotes from eukaryotes (cells without a true nucleus from cells with one). It did not separate unicellular from multicellular organisms (one-celled from many-celled). It also did not separate photosynthetic organisms (green algae, which make their own food) from non-photosynthetic ones (fungi).
R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed the Five Kingdom Classification: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia. Criteria: cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships. A three-domain system has also been proposed (Monera split into two domains → six kingdoms).आर.एच. व्हिटेकर (1969) ने पाँच जगत वर्गीकरण दिया: मोनेरा, प्रोटिस्टा, कवक, पादप, प्राणी। आधार: कोशिका संरचना, शरीर संगठन, पोषण की विधि, जनन और जातिवृत्तीय संबंध। तीन-डोमेन प्रणाली भी प्रस्तावित है (मोनेरा को दो डोमेन में बाँटकर → छह जगत)।R.H. Whittaker (1969) ne Five Kingdom Classification di: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia. Criteria: cell structure, body organisation, nutrition ka mode, reproduction aur phylogenetic relationships. Three-domain system bhi propose hua hai (Monera do domains mein → six kingdoms).R.H. Whittaker (1969) gave the Five Kingdom Classification. The five kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. He used these points to decide the kingdoms: cell structure, body organisation (how the body is built), mode of nutrition (how it gets food), reproduction, and phylogenetic relationships (how they are related through evolution). A newer three-domain system has also been suggested. It splits Monera into two domains, so we get six kingdoms in total.
| Characterलक्षणCharacter | MoneraमोनेराMonera | Protistaप्रोटिस्टाProtista | FungiकवकFungi | PlantaeपादपPlantae | Animaliaप्राणीAnimalia |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cell typeकोशिका प्रकारCell type | Prokaryoticप्रोकैरियोटिकProkaryotic | EukaryoticयूकैरियोटिकEukaryotic | EukaryoticयूकैरियोटिकEukaryotic | EukaryoticयूकैरियोटिकEukaryotic | EukaryoticयूकैरियोटिकEukaryotic |
| Cell wallकोशिका भित्तिCell wall | Non-cellulosic (polysaccharide + amino acid)असेलुलोसी (पॉलीसैकेराइड + अमीनो अम्ल)Non-cellulosic | Present in someकुछ मेंKuch mein | Present, with chitinउपस्थित, काइटिन युक्तPresent (chitin) | Present (cellulose)उपस्थित (सेलुलोस)Present (cellulose) | Absentअनुपस्थितAbsent |
| Nuclear membraneकेंद्रक झिल्लीNuclear membrane | Absentअनुपस्थितAbsent | Presentउपस्थितPresent | Presentउपस्थितPresent | Presentउपस्थितPresent | Presentउपस्थितPresent |
| Body organisationशरीर संगठनBody organisation | CellularकोशिकीयCellular | CellularकोशिकीयCellular | Multicellular / loose tissueबहुकोशिकीय / ढीला ऊतकMulticellular / loose tissue | Tissue / organऊतक / अंगTissue / organ | Tissue / organ / organ systemऊतक / अंग / अंग तंत्रTissue / organ / organ system |
| NutritionपोषणNutrition | Autotrophic (chemo- & photosynthetic) and heterotrophicस्वपोषी (रसायन व प्रकाश-संश्लेषी) और परपोषीAutotrophic + heterotrophic | Autotrophic (photosynthetic) and heterotrophicस्वपोषी (प्रकाश-संश्लेषी) और परपोषीAutotrophic + heterotrophic | Heterotrophic (saprophytic / parasitic)परपोषी (मृतोपजीवी / परजीवी)Heterotrophic (saprophytic / parasitic) | Autotrophic (photosynthetic)स्वपोषी (प्रकाश-संश्लेषी)Autotrophic | Heterotrophic (holozoic / saprophytic etc.)परपोषी (प्राणिसम / मृतोपजीवी आदि)Heterotrophic (holozoic etc.) |
2.1Kingdom Moneraमोनेरा जगतKingdom Monera
Bacteria are the sole members of Monera — the most abundant micro-organisms, found almost everywhere, even in hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans. Four shapes: coccus, bacillus, vibrium and spirillum. Bacteria show the most extensive metabolic diversity: some are autotrophs (photosynthetic or chemosynthetic), but the vast majority are heterotrophs.बैक्टीरिया ही मोनेरा के एकमात्र सदस्य हैं — सबसे अधिक संख्या वाले सूक्ष्मजीव, लगभग हर जगह, गर्म झरनों, मरुस्थल, बर्फ और गहरे समुद्र में भी। चार आकार: कोकस, बेसिलस, विब्रियम और स्पाइरिलम। बैक्टीरिया में सबसे व्यापक उपापचयी विविधता है: कुछ स्वपोषी (प्रकाश-संश्लेषी या रसायन-संश्लेषी), पर अधिकांश परपोषी हैं।Bacteria hi Monera ke akele members — sabse zyada paaye jaane wale micro-organisms, har jagah, hot springs, desert, barf, gehre samundar mein bhi. Chaar shapes: coccus, bacillus, vibrium, spirillum. Sabse zyada metabolic diversity: kuch autotrophs, par zyaadatar heterotrophs.Kingdom Monera has only bacteria as members. Bacteria are the most common micro-organisms. They are found almost everywhere — even in hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans. Bacteria have four shapes: coccus (round), bacillus (rod), vibrium (comma) and spirillum (spiral). Bacteria show the most extensive metabolic diversity (the widest range of ways to get food and energy). Some are autotrophs (make their own food by photosynthesis or by chemosynthesis). But the vast majority are heterotrophs (they depend on others for food).
2.1.1Archaebacteriaआर्कीबैक्टीरियाArchaebacteria
Live in the harshest habitats: extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens). A different cell wall structure helps them survive. Methanogens live in the gut of ruminants (cows, buffaloes) and produce methane (biogas) from their dung.सबसे कठोर आवासों में रहते हैं: अत्यधिक लवणीय क्षेत्र (हैलोफाइल), गर्म झरने (थर्मोएसिडोफाइल) और दलदली क्षेत्र (मेथैनोजन)। अलग प्रकार की कोशिका भित्ति इन्हें जीवित रहने में मदद करती है। मेथैनोजन जुगाली करने वाले पशुओं (गाय, भैंस) की आँत में रहते हैं और गोबर से मीथेन (बायोगैस) बनाते हैं।Sabse kathor jagahon mein: bahut namkeen jagah (halophiles), garam jharne (thermoacidophiles), daldal (methanogens). Alag cell wall structure se survive karte hain. Methanogens ruminants (gaay, bhains) ki aant mein — gobar se methane (biogas) banate hain.Archaebacteria live in the harshest places on earth. Halophiles live in very salty areas. Thermoacidophiles live in hot springs. Methanogens live in marshy (swampy) areas. They can survive there because their cell wall structure is different from other bacteria. Methanogens are also found in the gut of ruminants (cows and buffaloes). They make methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals.
2.1.2Eubacteriaयूबैक्टीरियाEubacteria
“True bacteria” with a rigid cell wall and, if motile, a flagellum. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a like plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs; unicellular, colonial or filamentous; colonies in a gelatinous sheath; they form blooms in polluted water. Some fix nitrogen in heterocysts — Nostoc, Anabaena. Chemosynthetic bacteria oxidise nitrates, nitrites, ammonia etc. for ATP and recycle N, P, Fe and S.“वास्तविक बैक्टीरिया” — कठोर कोशिका भित्ति और चलनशील हों तो कशाभ। सायनोबैक्टीरिया (नील-हरित शैवाल) में पौधों जैसा क्लोरोफिल a होता है, ये प्रकाश-संश्लेषी स्वपोषी हैं; एककोशिकीय, निवही या तंतुमय; निवह जिलेटिनी आवरण में; प्रदूषित जल में प्रस्फुटन (ब्लूम) बनाते हैं। कुछ हेटेरोसिस्ट में नाइट्रोजन स्थिर करते हैं — नॉस्टॉक, एनाबीना। रसायन-संश्लेषी बैक्टीरिया नाइट्रेट, नाइट्राइट, अमोनिया आदि का ऑक्सीकरण करके ATP बनाते हैं और N, P, Fe, S का पुनःचक्रण करते हैं।“True bacteria” — rigid cell wall aur motile hon to flagellum. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) mein plants jaisa chlorophyll a — photosynthetic autotrophs; unicellular, colonial ya filamentous; ganda paani mein bloom. Kuch heterocysts mein nitrogen fix karte hain — Nostoc, Anabaena. Chemosynthetic bacteria nitrates, nitrites, ammonia oxidise karke ATP banate hain; N, P, Fe, S recycle karte hain.Eubacteria are the “true bacteria”. They have a rigid cell wall (a hard outer wall). If they can move, they have a flagellum (a whip-like tail). Cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a, just like plants. So they make their own food by photosynthesis (photosynthetic autotrophs). They can be single cells, colonies or filaments (threads). Their colonies are covered by a jelly-like sheath. In polluted water they grow very fast and form blooms. Some of them, like Nostoc and Anabaena, can fix nitrogen (take nitrogen from air) in special cells called heterocysts. Chemosynthetic bacteria get energy (ATP) by oxidising chemicals like nitrates, nitrites and ammonia. They help to recycle N, P, Fe and S (nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and sulphur) in nature.
Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant; most are decomposers. Useful: curd from milk, antibiotics, nitrogen fixation in legume roots. Harmful: cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker. Reproduction mainly by fission; spores in unfavourable conditions; a primitive DNA transfer = a sort of sexual reproduction. Mycoplasma: no cell wall, the smallest living cells, can live without oxygen; many are pathogens.परपोषी बैक्टीरिया सबसे अधिक हैं; अधिकतर अपघटक हैं। उपयोगी: दूध से दही, प्रतिजैविक, दलहनी जड़ों में नाइट्रोजन स्थिरीकरण। हानिकारक: हैजा, टाइफाइड, टिटनेस, सिट्रस कैंकर। जनन मुख्यतः विखंडन से; प्रतिकूल समय में बीजाणु; आदिम DNA स्थानांतरण = एक प्रकार का लैंगिक जनन। माइकोप्लाज्मा: कोशिका भित्ति नहीं, सबसे छोटी जीवित कोशिकाएँ, ऑक्सीजन के बिना जीवित रह सकते हैं; कई रोगजनक।Heterotrophic bacteria sabse zyada; zyaadatar decomposers. Faayde: doodh se dahi, antibiotics, legume roots mein nitrogen fixation. Nuksaan: cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker. Reproduction mainly fission; bure time mein spores; primitive DNA transfer = ek tarah ka sexual reproduction. Mycoplasma: cell wall nahi, sabse chhote living cells, bina oxygen jee sakte; kai pathogenic.Heterotrophic bacteria are the most common bacteria. Most of them are decomposers (they break down dead matter). Some are useful: they turn milk into curd, make antibiotics, and fix nitrogen in the roots of legumes (pea family). Some are harmful and cause diseases like cholera, typhoid, tetanus and citrus canker (a plant disease). Bacteria mostly reproduce by fission (one cell splits into two). In bad conditions they make spores. They also show a simple kind of DNA transfer from one bacterium to another — this is a sort of sexual reproduction. Mycoplasma are special: they have no cell wall, they are the smallest living cells known, and they can live without oxygen. Many of them cause disease (pathogens).
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2.2Kingdom Protistaप्रोटिस्टा जगतKingdom Protista
All single-celled eukaryotes; boundaries not well defined. Primarily aquatic; a well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; some have flagella or cilia. Reproduce asexually and sexually (cell fusion → zygote). Protista links plants, animals and fungi. Groups: Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds, Protozoans.सभी एककोशिकीय यूकैरियोट; सीमाएँ स्पष्ट नहीं। मुख्यतः जलीय; सुस्पष्ट केंद्रक और झिल्लीबद्ध कोशिकांग; कुछ में कशाभ या पक्ष्माभ। अलैंगिक और लैंगिक (कोशिका संलयन → युग्मनज) जनन। प्रोटिस्टा पौधों, प्राणियों और कवकों के बीच कड़ी है। समूह: क्राइसोफाइट, डाइनोफ्लैजिलेट, युग्लीनॉइड, अवपंक कवक, प्रोटोज़ोआ।Saare single-celled eukaryotes; boundary clear nahi. Mostly aquatic; proper nucleus aur membrane-bound organelles; kuch mein flagella ya cilia. Asexual + sexual (cell fusion → zygote). Plants, animals, fungi ke beech link. Groups: Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds, Protozoans.Kingdom Protista has all the single-celled eukaryotes (one-celled organisms with a true nucleus). The limits of this kingdom are not very clear. Most protists live in water. They have a clear nucleus and other organelles covered by membranes. Some have flagella or cilia (hair-like parts) to move. They reproduce asexually and also sexually (two cells fuse to make a zygote). Protista acts as a link between plants, animals and fungi. Its groups are: Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans.
2.2.1Chrysophytesक्राइसोफाइटChrysophytes
Diatoms and golden algae (desmids); fresh water and marine; microscopic plankton; mostly photosynthetic. Diatom cell walls form two thin overlapping shells fitting like a soap box, embedded with silica → indestructible. Their deposits over billions of years = diatomaceous earth (gritty; used for polishing and filtering oils and syrups). Diatoms are the chief producers in the oceans.डायटम और सुनहरे शैवाल (डेस्मिड); अलवणीय और समुद्री जल; सूक्ष्म प्लवक; अधिकतर प्रकाश-संश्लेषी। डायटम की कोशिका भित्ति दो पतले अतिव्यापी कवच बनाती है जो साबुनदानी की तरह बैठते हैं, इनमें सिलिका होता है → अविनाशी। अरबों वर्षों में जमा भित्तियाँ = डायटमी मृदा (खुरदरी; पॉलिश करने और तेल व शर्बत छानने में उपयोग)। डायटम समुद्र के मुख्य उत्पादक हैं।Diatoms aur golden algae (desmids); meetha aur samudri paani; microscopic plankton; mostly photosynthetic. Diatom ki wall do patle overlapping shells — soap box jaisi, silica wali → indestructible. Jama hui walls = diatomaceous earth (polishing, oils/syrups filter). Diatoms oceans ke chief producers.Chrysophytes include diatoms and golden algae (desmids). They live in fresh water and in the sea. They are tiny and float as plankton. Most of them make their own food by photosynthesis. The cell wall of a diatom is made of two thin shells that overlap, fitting together like a soap box and its lid. The walls have silica in them, so they do not break down easily. Over billions of years their walls piled up as diatomaceous earth. This is a gritty (rough) powder used for polishing and for filtering oils and syrups. Diatoms are the chief producers in the oceans (they make most of the food there).
2.2.2Dinoflagellatesडाइनोफ्लैजिलेटDinoflagellates
Mostly marine, photosynthetic; yellow, green, brown, blue or red (pigments). Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates. Usually two flagella — one longitudinal, one transverse in a furrow. Red dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) multiply so fast the sea looks red — red tides; their toxins can kill fishes.अधिकतर समुद्री, प्रकाश-संश्लेषी; वर्णकों के अनुसार पीले, हरे, भूरे, नीले या लाल। कोशिका भित्ति पर सेलुलोस की कठोर प्लेटें। प्रायः दो कशाभ — एक अनुदैर्ध्य, दूसरा खाँचे में अनुप्रस्थ। लाल डाइनोफ्लैजिलेट (गोनियोलेक्स) इतनी तेज़ी से बढ़ते हैं कि समुद्र लाल दिखता है — लाल तरंगें (रेड टाइड); उनके विष मछलियों को मार सकते हैं।Mostly marine, photosynthetic; pigments se peele, hare, bhoore, neele ya laal. Wall par stiff cellulose plates. Aam taur par do flagella — ek lambai mein, ek furrow mein aada. Laal dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) itni tezi se badhte hain ki samundar laal — red tides; toxins se machhliyan mar sakti hain.Dinoflagellates mostly live in the sea and make their own food by photosynthesis. They can look yellow, green, brown, blue or red, depending on their pigments (colour chemicals). Their cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outside. Most have two flagella: one lies along the length of the body, and the other lies across it in a groove. Red dinoflagellates like Gonyaulax multiply so fast that the sea looks red. This is called a red tide. The toxins (poisons) they release can even kill fishes.
2.2.3Euglenoidsयुग्लीनॉइडEuglenoids
Mostly fresh water, in stagnant water. No cell wall — a protein-rich pellicle makes the body flexible. Two flagella (one short, one long). Photosynthetic in sunlight; without light they act as heterotrophs, eating smaller organisms (mixotrophic). Pigments are identical to higher plants. Example: Euglena.अधिकतर अलवणीय, ठहरे पानी में। कोशिका भित्ति नहीं — प्रोटीन-युक्त पेलिकिल शरीर को लचीला बनाती है। दो कशाभ (एक छोटा, एक लंबा)। सूर्य के प्रकाश में प्रकाश-संश्लेषी; प्रकाश न मिलने पर छोटे जीवों को खाकर परपोषी (मिश्रपोषी)। वर्णक उच्च पौधों जैसे ही। उदाहरण: युग्लीना।Mostly meetha paani, ruke paani mein. Cell wall nahi — protein wali pellicle body ko flexible banati hai. Do flagella (ek chhota, ek lamba). Dhoop mein photosynthesis; andhere mein chhote organisms kha kar heterotroph (mixotrophic). Pigments higher plants jaise. Example: Euglena.Euglenoids mostly live in fresh, still (stagnant) water. They have no cell wall. Instead, they have a protein-rich layer called the pellicle, which makes the body bendable. They have two flagella — one short and one long. In sunlight they make food by photosynthesis. Without light, they behave like heterotrophs and eat smaller organisms. This mixed way of feeding is called mixotrophic. Their pigments are exactly the same as in higher plants. Example: Euglena.
2.2.4Slime mouldsअवपंक कवकSlime moulds
Saprophytic protists that move over decaying twigs and leaves, engulfing organic matter. In good conditions they form an aggregate, the plasmodium, which may spread over several feet. In bad conditions the plasmodium forms fruiting bodies with spores at the tips; spores have true walls, are extremely resistant, survive for years and are dispersed by air currents.मृतोपजीवी प्रोटिस्ट जो सड़ती टहनियों और पत्तियों पर चलते हुए कार्बनिक पदार्थ निगलते हैं। अनुकूल परिस्थिति में ये प्लाज़्मोडियम नामक समूह बनाते हैं जो कई फुट तक फैल सकता है। प्रतिकूल समय में प्लाज़्मोडियम फलनकाय बनाता है जिनके सिरों पर बीजाणु होते हैं; बीजाणुओं में वास्तविक भित्ति होती है, ये अत्यंत प्रतिरोधी हैं, वर्षों जीवित रहते हैं और वायु से फैलते हैं।Saprophytic protists — sadti tehniyon aur patton par chalte hue organic matter nigalte hain. Achhe time mein plasmodium (kai feet tak). Bure time mein fruiting bodies jinke tip par spores; spores ki true walls, bahut resistant, saalon tak zinda, hawa se failte hain.Slime moulds are saprophytic protists (they feed on dead and decaying matter). They move over rotting twigs and leaves and swallow organic matter. In good conditions, many of them join together into a big mass called a plasmodium. It can spread over several feet. In bad conditions, the plasmodium forms fruiting bodies that carry spores at their tips. These spores have true walls. They are very tough, can survive for many years, and are spread by air currents (wind).
2.2.5Protozoansप्रोटोज़ोआProtozoans
All heterotrophs — predators or parasites; believed to be primitive relatives of animals. Four groups:सभी परपोषी — परभक्षी या परजीवी; प्राणियों के आदिम संबंधी माने जाते हैं। चार समूह:Sab heterotrophs — predator ya parasite; animals ke primitive relatives maane jaate hain. Chaar groups:Protozoans are all heterotrophs — they live as predators (hunters) or parasites. They are thought to be the early, simple relatives of animals. There are four groups:
- Amoeboid — fresh water, sea water or moist soil; move and catch prey with pseudopodia (Amoeba); marine forms have silica shells; Entamoeba is a parasite.अमीबीय — अलवणीय, समुद्री जल या नम मिट्टी; कूटपाद से चलते और शिकार पकड़ते हैं (अमीबा); समुद्री रूपों पर सिलिका कवच; एंटअमीबा परजीवी।Amoeboid — paani ya geeli mitti; pseudopodia se chalte aur shikaar pakadte (Amoeba); Entamoeba parasite.
- Flagellated — free-living or parasitic, with flagella; Trypanosoma causes sleeping sickness.कशाभी — स्वतंत्र या परजीवी, कशाभ युक्त; ट्रिपैनोसोमा से निद्रा रोग।Flagellated — flagella wale; Trypanosoma se sleeping sickness.
- Ciliated — aquatic, move by thousands of cilia; a gullet opens outside, cilia steer food-laden water into it — Paramoecium.पक्ष्माभी — जलीय, हज़ारों पक्ष्माभ से गति; एक गलेट (ग्रसिका) बाहर खुलती है, पक्ष्माभ भोजन वाला पानी उसमें धकेलते हैं — पैरामीशियम।Ciliated — hazaron cilia se chalte; gullet mein cilia khaane wala paani bhejte hain — Paramoecium.
- Sporozoans — an infectious spore-like stage in the life cycle; Plasmodium causes malaria.स्पोरोज़ोआ — जीवन चक्र में संक्रामक बीजाणु जैसी अवस्था; प्लाज़्मोडियम से मलेरिया।Sporozoans — life cycle mein infectious spore jaisi stage; Plasmodium se malaria.
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2.3Kingdom Fungiकवक जगतKingdom Fungi
A unique kingdom of heterotrophs: bread mould, mushrooms, toadstools; white spots on mustard leaves (a parasitic fungus); yeast for bread and beer; Puccinia causes wheat rust; Penicillium gives antibiotics. They prefer warm and humid places — that is why we refrigerate food.परपोषियों का एक अनोखा जगत: ब्रेड पर फफूँद, मशरूम, टोडस्टूल; सरसों की पत्तियों पर सफ़ेद धब्बे (परजीवी कवक); ब्रेड और बीयर के लिए यीस्ट; पक्सीनिया से गेहूँ का किट्ट (रस्ट); पेनिसिलियम से प्रतिजैविक। इन्हें गर्म और नम जगह पसंद है — इसलिए भोजन फ्रिज में रखते हैं।Heterotrophs ka anokha kingdom: bread par fungus, mushroom, toadstool; sarson ke patton par safed dhabbe; bread/beer ke liye yeast; Puccinia se wheat rust; Penicillium se antibiotics. Garam aur nami pasand — isliye khaana fridge mein.Kingdom Fungi is a special kingdom of heterotrophs (they cannot make their own food). Examples: bread mould, mushrooms and toadstools. The white spots on mustard leaves are caused by a parasitic fungus. Yeast is used to make bread and beer. Puccinia causes wheat rust (a disease of wheat). Penicillium gives us antibiotics. Fungi like warm and humid (damp) places. That is why we keep food in the fridge — to stop fungi from growing on it.
Except unicellular yeast, fungi are filamentous: thread-like hyphae form a network, the mycelium. Coenocytic hyphae are continuous multinucleate tubes; others have septae (cross walls). Cell wall = chitin and polysaccharides. Most are saprophytes; some parasites; some symbionts — with algae as lichens, with roots as mycorrhiza.एककोशिकीय यीस्ट को छोड़कर कवक तंतुमय होते हैं: धागे जैसे कवकतंतु (हाइफ़ी) मिलकर कवकजाल (माइसीलियम) बनाते हैं। संकोशिकी (कोइनोसाइटिक) कवकतंतु बहुकेंद्रकी सतत नलिकाएँ हैं; दूसरों में पट (सेप्टा) होते हैं। कोशिका भित्ति = काइटिन और पॉलीसैकेराइड। अधिकतर मृतोपजीवी; कुछ परजीवी; कुछ सहजीवी — शैवाल के साथ लाइकेन, जड़ों के साथ कवकमूल (माइकोराइज़ा)।Unicellular yeast ko chhod kar fungi filamentous: dhaage jaise hyphae ka network = mycelium. Coenocytic hyphae — multinucleate continuous tubes; baaki mein septae. Wall = chitin + polysaccharides. Zyaadatar saprophytes; kuch parasites; kuch symbionts — algae ke saath lichen, roots ke saath mycorrhiza.Except for yeast, which is single-celled, fungi are made of threads. These thin threads are called hyphae. A network of hyphae is called a mycelium. Some hyphae are coenocytic — long tubes with many nuclei and no walls inside. Other hyphae have septae (cross walls) dividing them. The fungal cell wall is made of chitin and polysaccharides. Most fungi are saprophytes (feed on dead matter). Some are parasites (live on other living things). Some live as symbionts (in a helpful partnership): with algae they form lichens, and with plant roots they form mycorrhiza.
Reproduction: vegetative (fragmentation, fission, budding); asexual by spores — conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores; sexual by oospores, ascospores, basidiospores, formed in fruiting bodies. Sexual cycle: (i) plasmogamy – fusion of protoplasms; (ii) karyogamy – fusion of nuclei; (iii) meiosis in zygote → haploid spores. In ascomycetes and basidiomycetes a dikaryotic (n + n) stage, the dikaryophase, comes between plasmogamy and karyogamy.जनन: कायिक (विखंडन, खंडन, मुकुलन); अलैंगिक बीजाणुओं से — कोनिडिया, धानी-बीजाणु या चलबीजाणु; लैंगिक — निषिक्तांड (ऊस्पोर), एस्कस-बीजाणु, बेसिडियो-बीजाणु, जो फलनकायों में बनते हैं। लैंगिक चक्र: (i) प्लैज़्मोगैमी – जीवद्रव्य संलयन; (ii) कैरियोगैमी – केंद्रक संलयन; (iii) युग्मनज में अर्धसूत्री विभाजन → अगुणित बीजाणु। एस्कोमाइसिटीज और बेसिडियोमाइसिटीज में प्लैज़्मोगैमी और कैरियोगैमी के बीच द्विकेंद्रकी (n + n) अवस्था — डाइकैरियोफ़ेज़ — आती है।Reproduction: vegetative (fragmentation, fission, budding); asexual spores — conidia, sporangiospores, zoospores; sexual — oospores, ascospores, basidiospores, fruiting bodies mein. Sexual cycle: (i) plasmogamy – protoplasm fusion; (ii) karyogamy – nuclei fusion; (iii) zygote mein meiosis → haploid spores. Ascomycetes aur basidiomycetes mein beech mein dikaryotic (n + n) stage — dikaryophase.Fungi reproduce in three ways. Vegetative: by fragmentation (breaking into pieces), fission (splitting) and budding. Asexual: by spores called conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores. Sexual: by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores, which are made in fruiting bodies. The sexual cycle has three steps: (i) plasmogamy – the cytoplasm (protoplasm) of two cells joins; (ii) karyogamy – the two nuclei join; (iii) meiosis in the zygote gives haploid spores (spores with one set of chromosomes). In ascomycetes and basidiomycetes there is an extra stage between plasmogamy and karyogamy. Each cell then has two separate nuclei (dikaryotic, n + n). This stage is called the dikaryophase.
| Classवर्गClass | MyceliumकवकजालMycelium | Asexual sporesअलैंगिक बीजाणुAsexual spores | Sexual sporesलैंगिक बीजाणुSexual spores | ExamplesउदाहरणExamples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PhycomycetesफाइकोमाइसिटीजPhycomycetes | Aseptate, coenocyticपटहीन, संकोशिकीAseptate, coenocytic | Zoospores (motile) / aplanospores (non-motile), endogenous in sporangiumचलबीजाणु / अचलबीजाणु, बीजाणुधानी में अंतर्जातZoospores / aplanospores, sporangium ke andar | Zygospore (isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous gametes)युग्माणु (समयुग्मकी, असमयुग्मकी या विषमयुग्मकी)Zygospore | Mucor, Rhizopus (bread mould), Albugo (on mustard)म्यूकर, राइज़ोपस, एल्बूगोMucor, Rhizopus, Albugo |
| Ascomycetes (sac fungi)एस्कोमाइसिटीज (थैली कवक)Ascomycetes (sac fungi) | Branched, septateशाखित, पटयुक्तBranched, septate | Conidia, exogenous on conidiophoresकोनिडिया, कोनिडियमधर पर बहिर्जातConidia, conidiophores par bahar | Ascospores, endogenous in asci (in ascocarps)एस्कस-बीजाणु, एस्काई में अंतर्जात (एस्कोकार्प में)Ascospores, asci ke andar | Penicillium, yeast, Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora; morels, trufflesपेनिसिलियम, यीस्ट, एस्पर्जिलस, क्लेविसेप्स, न्यूरोस्पोराPenicillium, yeast, Aspergillus, Neurospora |
| BasidiomycetesबेसिडियोमाइसिटीजBasidiomycetes | Branched, septateशाखित, पटयुक्तBranched, septate | Generally absent (fragmentation common); no sex organsप्रायः अनुपस्थित (खंडन सामान्य); लैंगिक अंग नहींMostly absent; sex organs nahi | 4 basidiospores, exogenous on basidium (in basidiocarps)4 बेसिडियो-बीजाणु, बेसिडियम पर बहिर्जात4 basidiospores, basidium par bahar | Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), Puccinia (rust)एगेरिकस, अस्टिलेगो, पक्सीनियाAgaricus, Ustilago, Puccinia |
| Deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi)ड्यूटेरोमाइसिटीज (अपूर्ण कवक)Deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi) | Septate, branchedपटयुक्त, शाखितSeptate, branched | Only conidiaकेवल कोनिडियाSirf conidia | Not known (when found, moved to asco-/basidiomycetes)ज्ञात नहीं (मिलने पर दूसरे वर्ग में भेजे जाते हैं)Pata nahi | Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Trichodermaआल्टरनेरिया, कोलेटोट्राइकम, ट्राइकोडर्माAlternaria, Colletotrichum, Trichoderma |
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2.4Kingdom Plantaeपादप जगतKingdom Plantae
Eukaryotic, chlorophyll-containing organisms (plants). A few are partially heterotrophic: insectivorous plants (bladderwort, Venus fly trap) and parasites (Cuscuta). Cell wall mainly of cellulose. Groups: algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms. Life cycle shows alternation of generations — diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte (details in Ch 3).यूकैरियोटिक, क्लोरोफिल-युक्त जीव (पौधे)। कुछ आंशिक परपोषी हैं: कीटभक्षी पौधे (ब्लैडरवर्ट, वीनस फ्लाई ट्रैप) और परजीवी (अमरबेल/कस्कुटा)। कोशिका भित्ति मुख्यतः सेलुलोस की। समूह: शैवाल, ब्रायोफाइट, टेरिडोफाइट, जिम्नोस्पर्म, एंजियोस्पर्म। जीवन चक्र में पीढ़ी एकांतरण — द्विगुणित बीजाणु-उद्भिद और अगुणित युग्मकोद्भिद (विवरण अध्याय 3 में)।Eukaryotic, chlorophyll wale organisms (plants). Kuch partially heterotrophic: insectivorous (bladderwort, Venus fly trap) aur parasite (Cuscuta/amarbel). Wall mainly cellulose. Groups: algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms. Life cycle mein alternation of generations — diploid sporophyte aur haploid gametophyte (Ch 3).Kingdom Plantae has eukaryotic organisms that contain chlorophyll — the plants. A few plants are partly heterotrophic (they get some food from others). Examples: insectivorous plants that catch insects (bladderwort, Venus fly trap) and parasites like Cuscuta. The plant cell wall is mainly made of cellulose. Plant groups: algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. The life cycle shows alternation of generations — a diploid sporophyte stage (two sets of chromosomes) and a haploid gametophyte stage (one set) come one after the other (details in Ch 3).
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2.5Kingdom Animaliaप्राणि जगतKingdom Animalia
Heterotrophic, multicellular eukaryotes without cell walls. Directly or indirectly depend on plants for food; holozoic nutrition (ingestion) with internal digestion; food stored as glycogen or fat. Definite growth pattern, adult shape and size; higher forms have elaborate sensory and neuromotor systems; most can move (locomotion). Sexual reproduction by copulation of male and female, then embryological development.परपोषी, बहुकोशिकीय यूकैरियोट, कोशिका भित्ति रहित। भोजन के लिए प्रत्यक्ष या अप्रत्यक्ष रूप से पौधों पर निर्भर; प्राणिसम (होलोज़ोइक) पोषण — अंतर्ग्रहण और आंतरिक पाचन; भोजन ग्लाइकोजन या वसा के रूप में संचित। निश्चित वृद्धि क्रम, वयस्क आकार; उच्च प्राणियों में विकसित संवेदी और तंत्रिका-पेशीय तंत्र; अधिकतर चलन करते हैं। नर-मादा के मैथुन से लैंगिक जनन, फिर भ्रूणीय परिवर्धन।Heterotrophic, multicellular eukaryotes, cell wall nahi. Khaane ke liye plants par direct/indirect nirbhar; holozoic nutrition — nigalna aur andar pachana; food glycogen ya fat mein store. Definite growth pattern; higher animals mein sensory aur neuromotor system; zyaadatar locomotion. Male-female copulation se sexual reproduction, phir embryological development.Kingdom Animalia has heterotrophic, multicellular eukaryotes that have no cell walls. They depend on plants for food, directly or indirectly. Their nutrition is holozoic — they take food inside the body (ingestion) and digest it inside. They store extra food as glycogen or fat. They follow a fixed growth pattern and grow to a definite adult shape and size. Higher animals have well-developed sensory and neuromotor systems (sense organs, nerves and muscles). Most of them can move from place to place (locomotion). In sexual reproduction, a male and a female mate (copulation), and then the embryo develops (embryological development).
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2.6Viruses, viroids, prions and lichensविषाणु, वाइरॉइड, प्रिओन और लाइकेनViruses, viroids, prions aur lichens
Whittaker’s system does not include these. Viruses are non-cellular: an inert crystalline structure outside a living cell; inside a host they take over its machinery to multiply, killing the host. Virus = venom/poisonous fluid. Ivanowsky (1892) — causal agent of tobacco mosaic passes through bacteria-proof filters; Beijerinck (1898) — named it virus, Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid); W.M. Stanley (1935) — viruses can be crystallised, crystals mostly protein. Viruses are obligate parasites.व्हिटेकर की प्रणाली में ये शामिल नहीं हैं। विषाणु (वायरस) अकोशिकीय हैं: जीवित कोशिका के बाहर निष्क्रिय क्रिस्टलीय संरचना; पोषी कोशिका में घुसकर उसकी मशीनरी से अपनी प्रतिकृति बनाते हैं और पोषी को मार देते हैं। वायरस = विष/विषैला तरल। इवानोवस्की (1892) — तंबाकू मोज़ेक का कारक बैक्टीरिया-रोधी फ़िल्टर से निकल जाता है; बीजेरिनेक (1898) — नाम वायरस, कन्टेजियम वाइवम फ्लूइडम (संक्रामक जीवित तरल); डब्ल्यू.एम. स्टैनले (1935) — विषाणुओं का क्रिस्टलीकरण हो सकता है, क्रिस्टल मुख्यतः प्रोटीन। विषाणु अविकल्पी परजीवी हैं।Whittaker ke system mein ye nahi hain. Virus non-cellular: cell ke bahar inert crystal; host cell mein ghus kar uski machinery se copies banate, host ko maar dete. Virus = zeher. Ivanowsky (1892) — tobacco mosaic ka agent bacteria-proof filter se nikal jaata hai; Beijerinck (1898) — naam virus, Contagium vivum fluidum; W.M. Stanley (1935) — virus ko crystallise kiya, crystals mostly protein. Virus obligate parasites.Whittaker’s system does not include these. Viruses are non-cellular (not made of cells). Outside a living cell, a virus is a lifeless (inert) crystal-like structure. Once inside a host cell, it takes over the cell's machinery to make copies of itself, and this kills the host. The word virus means venom or poisonous fluid. Ivanowsky (1892) found that the cause of tobacco mosaic disease could pass through bacteria-proof filters (so it was smaller than bacteria). Beijerinck (1898) showed that the juice of infected plants could infect healthy plants, and called it Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid). W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses can be crystallised, and the crystals are mostly protein. Viruses are obligate parasites (they can live only inside a living host).
A virus is a nucleoprotein: protein + genetic material (RNA or DNA, never both); the genetic material is infectious. Plant viruses usually have single-stranded RNA; animal viruses ss or ds RNA or ds DNA; bacteriophages usually ds DNA. The protein coat, capsid, is made of capsomeres arranged in helical or polyhedral forms. Diseases: mumps, small pox, herpes, influenza, AIDS; in plants — mosaic, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing, vein clearing, dwarfing.विषाणु एक न्यूक्लियोप्रोटीन है: प्रोटीन + आनुवंशिक पदार्थ (RNA या DNA, दोनों कभी नहीं); आनुवंशिक पदार्थ संक्रामक होता है। पादप विषाणुओं में प्रायः एकल-सूत्री RNA; प्राणी विषाणुओं में एकल/द्वि-सूत्री RNA या द्वि-सूत्री DNA; बैक्टीरियोफेज में प्रायः द्वि-सूत्री DNA। प्रोटीन आवरण कैप्सिड कैप्सोमीयर से बना होता है, जो सर्पिल या बहुफलकीय रूप में व्यवस्थित हैं। रोग: गलसुआ (मम्प्स), चेचक, हर्पीज़, इन्फ्लुएंज़ा, एड्स; पौधों में — मोज़ेक, पत्तियों का मुड़ना-सिकुड़ना, पीलापन, शिरा स्वच्छन, बौनापन।Virus ek nucleoprotein: protein + genetic material (RNA ya DNA, dono kabhi nahi); genetic material infectious. Plant viruses mein usually single-stranded RNA; animal viruses ss/ds RNA ya ds DNA; bacteriophage mein usually ds DNA. Protein coat capsid capsomeres se, helical ya polyhedral. Bimariyan: mumps, small pox, herpes, influenza, AIDS; plants mein mosaic, patte mudna, peelapan, vein clearing, bauna-pan.A virus is a nucleoprotein — it is made of protein plus genetic material. The genetic material is either RNA or DNA, never both, and it is this part that causes infection. Plant viruses usually have single-stranded RNA. Animal viruses have single- or double-stranded RNA, or double-stranded DNA. Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) usually have double-stranded DNA. The protein coat is called the capsid. It is made of small units called capsomeres, arranged in a helical (spiral) or polyhedral (many-sided) shape. Viral diseases in humans: mumps, small pox, herpes, influenza and AIDS. In plants, viruses cause mosaic patterns, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing, vein clearing and dwarfing (stunted growth).
- Viroids — found by T.O. Diener (1971); smaller than viruses; cause potato spindle tuber disease; free RNA without a protein coat, of low molecular weight.वाइरॉइड — टी.ओ. डायनर (1971) ने खोजा; विषाणु से छोटे; आलू तर्कु कंद (पोटैटो स्पिंडल ट्यूबर) रोग; प्रोटीन आवरण रहित मुक्त RNA, कम अणुभार का।Viroids — T.O. Diener (1971); virus se chhote; potato spindle tuber disease; bina protein coat ka free RNA, low molecular weight.
- Prions — infectious agents made of abnormally folded protein, about the size of viruses; cause neurological diseases: BSE (mad cow disease) in cattle and Creutzfeldt–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.प्रिओन — असामान्य रूप से मुड़े प्रोटीन से बने संक्रामक कारक, आकार में विषाणु जैसे; तंत्रिका रोग: पशुओं में BSE (मैड काउ रोग) और मनुष्यों में क्रुट्ज़फेल्ट–जैकब रोग (CJD)।Prions — galat fold hue protein se bane infectious agents, virus ke size ke; BSE (mad cow disease) aur insaan mein CJD.
- Lichens — symbiotic (mutually useful) associations of algae and fungi. Algal part = phycobiont (autotrophic, makes food); fungal part = mycobiont (heterotrophic, gives shelter, absorbs water and minerals). Lichens are good pollution indicators — they do not grow in polluted areas.लाइकेन — शैवाल और कवक का सहजीवी (पारस्परिक लाभदायक) संबंध। शैवाल भाग = शैवालांश (फाइकोबायंट) (स्वपोषी, भोजन बनाता है); कवक भाग = कवकांश (माइकोबायंट) (परपोषी, आश्रय देता है, जल और खनिज सोखता है)। लाइकेन अच्छे प्रदूषण सूचक हैं — प्रदूषित क्षेत्रों में नहीं उगते।Lichens — algae + fungi ka symbiotic rishta. Algae part = phycobiont (autotroph, khaana banata); fungus part = mycobiont (heterotroph, ghar deta, paani-minerals sokhta). Lichens pollution indicators — gande hawa mein nahi ugte.
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★ Yaad rakho — quick revision★ याद रखो — झटपट दोहराव★ Yaad rakho — quick revision
- Aristotle: plants – trees/shrubs/herbs; animals – red blood or not. Linnaeus: 2 kingdoms. Whittaker (1969): 5 kingdoms.अरस्तू: पौधे – वृक्ष/झाड़ी/शाक; प्राणी – लाल रुधिर है या नहीं। लीनियस: 2 जगत। व्हिटेकर (1969): 5 जगत।Aristotle: trees/shrubs/herbs; red blood ya nahi. Linnaeus: 2 kingdoms. Whittaker (1969): 5 kingdoms.
- Whittaker criteria: cell structure, body organisation, nutrition, reproduction, phylogenetic relationships.व्हिटेकर के आधार: कोशिका संरचना, शरीर संगठन, पोषण, जनन, जातिवृत्तीय संबंध।Whittaker criteria: cell structure, body organisation, nutrition, reproduction, phylogeny.
- Archaebacteria: halophiles, thermoacidophiles, methanogens (biogas from dung) — special cell wall.आर्कीबैक्टीरिया: हैलोफाइल, थर्मोएसिडोफाइल, मेथैनोजन (गोबर से बायोगैस) — विशेष भित्ति।Archaebacteria: halophiles, thermoacidophiles, methanogens — special wall.
- Cyanobacteria: chlorophyll a; N₂ fixation in heterocysts (Nostoc, Anabaena). Mycoplasma: no wall, smallest cell.सायनोबैक्टीरिया: क्लोरोफिल a; हेटेरोसिस्ट में N₂ स्थिरीकरण (नॉस्टॉक, एनाबीना)। माइकोप्लाज्मा: भित्ति नहीं, सबसे छोटी कोशिका।Cyanobacteria: chl a; heterocyst (Nostoc, Anabaena). Mycoplasma: wall nahi, sabse chhota cell.
- Diatoms: silica soap-box walls → diatomaceous earth; chief ocean producers. Gonyaulax → red tides. Euglena: pellicle, mixotroph.डायटम: सिलिका साबुनदानी भित्ति → डायटमी मृदा; समुद्र के मुख्य उत्पादक। गोनियोलेक्स → लाल तरंगें। युग्लीना: पेलिकिल, मिश्रपोषी।Diatoms: silica soap-box → diatomaceous earth. Gonyaulax → red tide. Euglena: pellicle.
- Protozoa: Amoeba (pseudopodia), Trypanosoma (sleeping sickness), Paramoecium (cilia, gullet), Plasmodium (malaria).प्रोटोज़ोआ: अमीबा (कूटपाद), ट्रिपैनोसोमा (निद्रा रोग), पैरामीशियम (पक्ष्माभ, गलेट), प्लाज़्मोडियम (मलेरिया)।Protozoa: Amoeba, Trypanosoma (sleeping sickness), Paramoecium, Plasmodium (malaria).
- Fungi wall = chitin. Sexual cycle: plasmogamy → karyogamy → meiosis. Dikaryon (n+n) in asco- and basidiomycetes.कवक भित्ति = काइटिन। लैंगिक चक्र: प्लैज़्मोगैमी → कैरियोगैमी → अर्धसूत्री। द्विकेंद्रकी (n+n) – एस्को- व बेसिडियोमाइसिटीज में।Fungi wall = chitin. Plasmogamy → karyogamy → meiosis. Dikaryon (n+n).
- Phyco – aseptate, zygospore (Mucor, Rhizopus, Albugo). Asco – asci, conidia (Penicillium, yeast, Neurospora). Basidio – basidium, 4 spores (Agaricus, Ustilago, Puccinia). Deutero – only conidia (Alternaria, Trichoderma).फाइको – पटहीन, युग्माणु। एस्को – एस्काई, कोनिडिया। बेसिडियो – बेसिडियम, 4 बीजाणु। ड्यूटेरो – केवल कोनिडिया।Phyco – aseptate, zygospore. Asco – asci. Basidio – basidium. Deutero – sirf conidia.
- Virus: nucleoprotein, RNA or DNA (never both); Ivanowsky 1892, Beijerinck 1898, Stanley 1935. Viroid: free RNA (Diener 1971). Prion: misfolded protein (BSE, CJD).विषाणु: न्यूक्लियोप्रोटीन, RNA या DNA (दोनों नहीं); इवानोवस्की 1892, बीजेरिनेक 1898, स्टैनले 1935। वाइरॉइड: मुक्त RNA (डायनर 1971)। प्रिओन: गलत मुड़ा प्रोटीन (BSE, CJD)।Virus: RNA ya DNA; 1892/1898/1935. Viroid: free RNA (1971). Prion: misfolded protein.
- Lichen = phycobiont (alga, autotroph) + mycobiont (fungus, heterotroph); pollution indicator.लाइकेन = शैवालांश (स्वपोषी) + कवकांश (परपोषी); प्रदूषण सूचक।Lichen = phycobiont + mycobiont; pollution indicator.
⚠ Common mistakes⚠ आम गलतियाँ⚠ Common mistakes
- Calling cyanobacteria “algae” of Protista — they are bacteria (Monera), prokaryotes.सायनोबैक्टीरिया को प्रोटिस्टा का शैवाल मानना — ये बैक्टीरिया (मोनेरा) हैं, प्रोकैरियोट।Cyanobacteria Protista nahi — Monera (bacteria).
- Saying a virus has both DNA and RNA — never both.विषाणु में DNA और RNA दोनों कहना — दोनों कभी नहीं।Virus mein DNA + RNA dono — galat.
- Mixing viroid and prion: viroid = RNA without protein coat; prion = protein.वाइरॉइड और प्रिओन में भ्रम: वाइरॉइड = बिना आवरण RNA; प्रिओन = प्रोटीन।Viroid = RNA; prion = protein.
- Writing fungal cell wall as cellulose — it is chitin (plus polysaccharides).कवक भित्ति को सेलुलोस लिखना — यह काइटिन है।Fungi wall cellulose nahi, chitin.
- Euglena has a cell wall — no, it has a pellicle.युग्लीना में कोशिका भित्ति — नहीं, पेलिकिल।Euglena mein wall nahi, pellicle.
- Ascospores exogenous / basidiospores endogenous — it is the reverse: asci (inside), basidium (outside).एस्कस-बीजाणु बहिर्जात / बेसिडियो-बीजाणु अंतर्जात — उल्टा है।Ascospores andar, basidiospores bahar.
✎ NCERT questions — short answers✎ NCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तर✎ NCERT questions — short answers
NCERT exercises (tap a question to see the answer)NCERT अभ्यास (उत्तर देखने के लिए प्रश्न पर टैप करें)NCERT exercises (answer dekhne ke liye question par tap kijiye)
1. Discuss how classification systems have undergone several changes over time.1. वर्गीकरण प्रणालियों में समय के साथ कैसे परिवर्तन हुए, चर्चा कीजिए।1. Classification systems samay ke saath kaise badle?
2. State two economically important uses of (a) heterotrophic bacteria (b) archaebacteria.2. (a) परपोषी बैक्टीरिया (b) आर्कीबैक्टीरिया के दो आर्थिक उपयोग बताइए।2. (a) heterotrophic bacteria (b) archaebacteria ke do economic uses.
3. What is the nature of cell-walls in diatoms?3. डायटम में कोशिका भित्ति की प्रकृति कैसी होती है?3. Diatoms ki cell wall kaisi hoti hai?
4. What do ‘algal bloom’ and ‘red tides’ signify?4. ‘शैवाल प्रस्फुटन’ और ‘लाल तरंगें’ क्या दर्शाती हैं?4. ‘Algal bloom’ aur ‘red tides’ ka matlab?
5. How are viroids different from viruses?5. वाइरॉइड विषाणुओं से कैसे भिन्न हैं?5. Viroids viruses se kaise alag?
6. Describe briefly the four major groups of Protozoa.6. प्रोटोज़ोआ के चार प्रमुख समूहों का संक्षिप्त वर्णन कीजिए।6. Protozoa ke chaar groups.
7. Plants are autotrophic. Can you think of some plants that are partially heterotrophic?7. पौधे स्वपोषी हैं। क्या आप कुछ आंशिक परपोषी पौधे बता सकते हैं?7. Kuch partially heterotrophic plants?
8. What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont signify?8. शैवालांश (फाइकोबायंट) और कवकांश (माइकोबायंट) का क्या अर्थ है?8. Phycobiont aur mycobiont?
9. Compare the classes of Kingdom Fungi by (i) mode of nutrition (ii) mode of reproduction.9. कवक जगत के वर्गों की तुलना (i) पोषण विधि (ii) जनन विधि के आधार पर कीजिए।9. Fungi ke classes ki tulna: (i) nutrition (ii) reproduction.
10. What are the characteristic features of Euglenoids?10. युग्लीनॉइड के विशिष्ट लक्षण क्या हैं?10. Euglenoids ke features?
11. Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their structure and nature of genetic material. Name four common viral diseases.11. विषाणुओं की संरचना और आनुवंशिक पदार्थ की प्रकृति का संक्षिप्त वर्णन कीजिए। चार सामान्य विषाणु रोग बताइए।11. Virus ki structure aur genetic material; chaar viral diseases.
12. Discuss: Are viruses living or non-living?12. चर्चा कीजिए: विषाणु सजीव हैं या निर्जीव?12. Virus living hain ya non-living?
🎯 Quiz — 13 questions🎯 क्विज़ — 13 प्रश्न🎯 Quiz — 13 questions
Tap an option. The answer and a short reason appear at once.किसी विकल्प पर टैप करें। उत्तर और छोटा कारण तुरंत दिखेगा।Kisi option par tap kijiye. Answer aur chhota reason turant dikhega.
1. Five kingdom classification was proposed by …पाँच जगत वर्गीकरण किसने दिया?Five kingdom kisne di?
2. Methanogens belong to …मेथैनोजन किसमें आते हैं?Methanogens kisme?
3. Nitrogen fixation in Nostoc and Anabaena occurs in …नॉस्टॉक और एनाबीना में N₂ स्थिरीकरण कहाँ होता है?Nostoc/Anabaena mein N₂ fixation kahan?
4. Organisms that completely lack a cell wall and are the smallest living cells:पूरी तरह भित्ति रहित, सबसे छोटी जीवित कोशिकाएँ:Wall nahi, sabse chhote cells:
5. Diatomaceous earth is formed from cell walls rich in …डायटमी मृदा किस से युक्त भित्तियों से बनती है?Diatomaceous earth kis cheez ki walls se?
6. Red tides are caused by …लाल तरंगें किससे होती हैं?Red tides kisse?
7. Instead of a cell wall, Euglena has …युग्लीना में भित्ति के स्थान पर …Euglena mein wall ki jagah …
8. Sleeping sickness is caused by …निद्रा रोग किससे होता है?Sleeping sickness kisse?
9. Fusion of two nuclei in fungi is called …कवक में दो केंद्रकों का संलयन कहलाता है …Fungi mein nuclei ka fusion?
10. Which is a phycomycete?इनमें फाइकोमाइसिटीज कौन है?Phycomycete kaun?
11. Fungi known only by asexual (conidial) stage are …केवल अलैंगिक अवस्था से ज्ञात कवक …Sirf asexual stage wale fungi:
12. Viroids differ from viruses in having …वाइरॉइड में विषाणुओं से भिन्न …Viroids mein …
13. Mad cow disease is caused by …मैड काउ रोग किससे होता है?Mad cow disease kisse?
Found a mistake?कोई गलती दिखी?Koi galti dikhi? Report a mistakeगलती बताइएGalti bataiye — we fix confirmed errors quickly.— पक्की गलतियाँ हम जल्दी ठीक करते हैं।— confirm galtiyan hum jaldi theek karte hain.
These are Simple Learning Hub's own study notes written to follow the NCERT Class 11 Biology textbook (2026-27 reprint of the rationalised edition) section by section; read them with the official NCERT chapter. Diagrams are original SLH drawings based on the NCERT figures they name.ये Simple Learning Hub के अपने स्टडी नोट्स हैं, जो NCERT कक्षा 11 जीव विज्ञान की किताब (2026-27) के हर अनुभाग के साथ लिखे गए हैं; इन्हें NCERT के आधिकारिक अध्याय के साथ पढ़िए। डायग्राम SLH के अपने बनाए चित्र हैं।Ye Simple Learning Hub ke apne study notes hain, jo NCERT Class 11 Biology ki kitaab (2026-27) ke har section ke saath likhe gaye hain; inhe NCERT ke official chapter ke saath padhiye. Diagrams SLH ki apni drawings hain.