Ch 8Cell: The Unit of Lifeकोशिका : जीवन की इकाईCell: The Unit of Life
Cell theory, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, membrane, cell wall, endomembrane system, mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, cilia, centrioles, nucleus and chromosomes.कोशिका सिद्धांत, प्रोकैरियोटिक व यूकैरियोटिक कोशिकाएँ, झिल्ली, भित्ति, अंतःझिल्ली तंत्र, सूत्रकणिका, लवक, राइबोसोम, कोशिका-कंकाल, पक्ष्माभ, तारककेंद्र, केंद्रक और गुणसूत्र।Cell theory, prokaryotic-eukaryotic cells, membrane, wall, endomembrane system, mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, cilia, centrioles, nucleus, chromosomes.
Didn’t understand a paragraph? Tap it (or its Explain button) → Hindi / Hinglish / Simple English.कोई पैराग्राफ़ समझ नहीं आया? उस पर (या समझें बटन पर) टैप करें → अंग्रेज़ी / हिंग्लिश।Koi paragraph samajh nahi aaya? Us par (ya Samjho button par) tap kijiye → Hindi / English.
Diagrams in this chapterइस अध्याय के डायग्रामIs chapter ke diagrams
▶ Animate: Endomembrane system: RER → Golgi → secretion▶ एनिमेट: अंतःझिल्ली तंत्र: RER → गॉल्जी → स्राव▶ Animate: Endomembrane system: RER → Golgi → secretionAnimated
▶ Animate: Cell membrane: fluid mosaic model▶ एनिमेट: कोशिका झिल्ली: तरल किर्मीर मॉडल▶ Animate: Cell membrane: fluid mosaic modelAnimated
Animal cell (electron microscope view)प्राणी कोशिका (इलेक्ट्रॉन सूक्ष्मदर्शी दृश्य)Animal cell (electron microscope view)Fig 8.3 (b)
Plant cell (electron microscope view)पादप कोशिका (इलेक्ट्रॉन सूक्ष्मदर्शी दृश्य)Plant cell (electron microscope view)Fig 8.3 (a)
Fluid mosaic model of plasma membraneप्लाज़्मा झिल्ली का तरल किर्मीर मॉडलFluid mosaic model of plasma membraneFig 8.4
Structure of mitochondrion (L.S.)सूत्रकणिका की संरचना (अनुदैर्ध्य काट)Structure of mitochondrion (L.S.)Fig 8.7
Sectional view of chloroplastहरितलवक का काट दृश्यSectional view of chloroplastFig 8.8
Cilium/flagellum cross-section (9+2)पक्ष्माभ/कशाभ की अनुप्रस्थ काट (9+2)Cilium/flagellum cross-section (9+2)Fig 8.10
Types of chromosomes by centromere positionगुणसूत्रबिंदु की स्थिति के आधार पर गुणसूत्रों के प्रकारTypes of chromosomes by centromere positionFig 8.13In this chapter (NCERT sections)इस अध्याय में (NCERT खंड)Is chapter mein (NCERT sections)
- 8.1What is a cell?कोशिका क्या है?Cell kya hai?
- 8.2Cell theoryकोशिका सिद्धांतCell theory
- 8.3An overview of cellकोशिका का एक समग्र दृश्यCell overview
- 8.4Prokaryotic cellsप्रोकैरियोटिक कोशिकाएँProkaryotic cells
- 8.5Eukaryotic cellsयूकैरियोटिक कोशिकाएँEukaryotic cells
- ★Yaad rakho — quick revisionयाद रखो — झटपट दोहरावYaad rakho — quick revision
- ⚠Common mistakesआम गलतियाँCommon mistakes
- ✎NCERT questions — short answersNCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तरNCERT questions — short answers
- 🎯Quizक्विज़Quiz
8.1What is a cell?कोशिका क्या है?Cell kya hai?
Unicellular organisms can exist independently and perform all essentials of life — anything less than a complete cell cannot. So the cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Antonie von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell; Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus; the electron microscope revealed fine details.एककोशिकीय जीव स्वतंत्र रूप से रह सकते हैं और जीवन के सभी आवश्यक कार्य करते हैं — पूर्ण कोशिका से कम कुछ भी नहीं कर सकता। इसलिए कोशिका सभी जीवों की मूलभूत संरचनात्मक और कार्यात्मक इकाई है। एंटोनी वॉन ल्यूवेनहॉक ने सबसे पहले जीवित कोशिका देखी और वर्णित की; रॉबर्ट ब्राउन ने बाद में केंद्रक खोजा; इलेक्ट्रॉन सूक्ष्मदर्शी ने बारीक संरचनाएँ दिखाईं।Unicellular jeev akele jee sakte. Isliye cell = life ki basic structural aur functional unit. Leeuwenhoek ne pehli live cell dekhi; Robert Brown ne nucleus.A unicellular (one-celled) organism can live on its own and do all the basic jobs of life. Anything smaller than a complete cell cannot do this. So the cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living things. Antonie von Leeuwenhoek was the first to see and describe a living cell. Later, Robert Brown discovered the nucleus. The electron microscope later showed the fine details inside the cell.
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8.2Cell theoryकोशिका सिद्धांतCell theory
Matthias Schleiden (1838, German botanist) found all plants are made of cells; Theodore Schwann (1839, British zoologist) found animal cells have a thin outer layer — the plasma membrane — and that plant cells also have a cell wall. Together they proposed that bodies of animals and plants are made of cells and their products. This did not explain how new cells form. Rudolf Virchow (1855) showed cells divide and new cells come from pre-existing cells — Omnis cellula-e cellula — giving the final cell theory: (i) all living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells; (ii) all cells arise from pre-existing cells.मैथियस श्लाइडेन (1838, जर्मन वनस्पतिशास्त्री) ने पाया कि सभी पौधे कोशिकाओं से बने हैं; थियोडोर श्वान (1839, ब्रिटिश प्राणिशास्त्री) ने पाया कि प्राणी कोशिकाओं के बाहर पतली परत — प्लाज़्मा झिल्ली — होती है और पादप कोशिकाओं में कोशिका भित्ति भी। दोनों ने कहा कि पौधों और प्राणियों के शरीर कोशिकाओं और उनके उत्पादों से बने हैं। नई कोशिकाएँ कैसे बनती हैं, यह स्पष्ट नहीं था। रुडॉल्फ़ विर्खो (1855) ने बताया कि कोशिकाएँ विभाजित होती हैं और नई कोशिकाएँ पूर्ववर्ती कोशिकाओं से बनती हैं — ओम्निस सेल्युला-ए सेल्युला — अंतिम कोशिका सिद्धांत: (i) सभी जीव कोशिकाओं और कोशिका-उत्पादों से बने हैं; (ii) सभी कोशिकाएँ पूर्ववर्ती कोशिकाओं से बनती हैं।Schleiden (1838) — plants cells se; Schwann (1839) — animal cells mein plasma membrane, plant mein wall bhi. Virchow (1855) — Omnis cellula-e cellula. Final theory: (i) sab jeev cells se; (ii) har cell pehle wali cell se.Matthias Schleiden (1838, a German botanist) found that all plants are made of cells. Theodore Schwann (1839, a British zoologist) found that animal cells have a thin outer layer, the plasma membrane. He also saw that plant cells have a cell wall. Together they said that the bodies of animals and plants are made of cells and the things cells make. But they could not explain how new cells are formed. Rudolf Virchow (1855) showed that cells divide, and new cells come from cells that already exist. He said Omnis cellula-e cellula (every cell comes from a cell). This gave the final cell theory: (i) all living things are made of cells and products of cells; (ii) all cells come from pre-existing cells.
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8.3An overview of cellकोशिका का एक समग्र दृश्यCell overview
Cells with a membrane-bound nucleus are eukaryotic; without one, prokaryotic. In both, a semi-fluid cytoplasm is the main arena of activity. Eukaryotes also have membrane-bound organelles — ER, Golgi, lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies, vacuoles; prokaryotes lack them. Ribosomes (non-membrane) occur in all cells — in cytoplasm, and in chloroplasts, mitochondria and on rough ER. Animal cells have centrosome (non-membrane). Sizes: Mycoplasma smallest (~0.3 µm), bacteria 3–5 µm, human RBC ~7 µm, largest single cell = ostrich egg; nerve cells are among the longest. Shapes vary with function — disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread-like, irregular.झिल्ली से घिरे केंद्रक वाली कोशिकाएँ यूकैरियोटिक; बिना केंद्रक वाली प्रोकैरियोटिक। दोनों में अर्ध-तरल कोशिकाद्रव्य मुख्य क्रिया-स्थल। यूकैरियोट में झिल्लीबद्ध अंगक भी — ER, गॉल्जी, लयनकाय, सूत्रकणिका, सूक्ष्मकाय, रिक्तिकाएँ; प्रोकैरियोट में नहीं। राइबोसोम (झिल्ली रहित) सभी कोशिकाओं में — कोशिकाद्रव्य में, हरितलवक, सूत्रकणिका और खुरदरी ER पर। प्राणी कोशिकाओं में तारककाय (सेंट्रोसोम)। आकार: माइकोप्लाज़्मा सबसे छोटी (~0.3 µm), जीवाणु 3–5 µm, मानव RBC ~7 µm, सबसे बड़ी एकल कोशिका = शुतुरमुर्ग का अंडा; तंत्रिका कोशिकाएँ सबसे लंबी में। आकृति कार्य के अनुसार — बिंब, बहुभुजी, स्तंभी, घनाकार, धागे जैसी, अनियमित।Membrane wala nucleus = eukaryotic; nahi = prokaryotic. Cytoplasm main arena. Eukaryotes mein organelles; prokaryotes mein nahi. Ribosomes sab mein. Size: Mycoplasma ~0.3 µm, bacteria 3–5 µm, RBC ~7 µm, sabse badi = shuturmurg ka anda.Cells that have a nucleus covered by a membrane are eukaryotic. Cells without such a nucleus are prokaryotic. In both kinds, a semi-fluid (jelly-like) cytoplasm is the main place where the cell's work happens. Eukaryotic cells also have organelles covered by membranes — ER, Golgi, lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies and vacuoles. Prokaryotic cells do not have these. Ribosomes (with no membrane) are found in all cells — in the cytoplasm, inside chloroplasts and mitochondria, and on rough ER. Animal cells have a centrosome (also with no membrane). Sizes: Mycoplasma is the smallest (~0.3 µm), bacteria are 3–5 µm, and a human RBC is ~7 µm. The biggest single cell is the ostrich egg. Nerve cells are among the longest cells. Cell shape depends on its job — disc-like, many-sided (polygonal), column-like, cube-like, thread-like or irregular.
3D animal cell3D · 3D plant cell3D3D प्राणी कोशिका3D · 3D पादप कोशिका3D3D animal cell3D · 3D plant cell3DOpen the 3D models: 3D animal cell3D and 3D plant cell3D.
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8.4Prokaryotic cellsप्रोकैरियोटिक कोशिकाएँProkaryotic cells
Bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO (pleuro-pneumonia like organisms) — generally smaller and multiply faster than eukaryotic cells. Bacterial shapes: bacillus (rod), coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma), spirillum (spiral). All (except mycoplasma) have a cell wall around the membrane. No well-defined nucleus: genetic material is naked, not enveloped by a nuclear membrane. Besides genomic DNA (single circular chromosome) many have small circular plasmids, which give traits like antibiotic resistance and are used in transformation. No membrane-bound organelles except ribosomes. A characteristic infolding of the membrane is the mesosome. See the bacterial cell diagram.जीवाणु, नील-हरित शैवाल, माइकोप्लाज़्मा और PPLO (प्लूरो-निमोनिया जैसे जीव) — प्रायः यूकैरियोटिक से छोटे और तेज़ी से गुणन। जीवाणु आकृतियाँ: बैसिलस (छड़), कोकस (गोल), विब्रियो (कॉमा), स्पाइरिलम (सर्पिल)। सभी (माइकोप्लाज़्मा को छोड़कर) में झिल्ली के चारों ओर कोशिका भित्ति। सुस्पष्ट केंद्रक नहीं: आनुवंशिक पदार्थ नग्न, केंद्रक झिल्ली से घिरा नहीं। जीनोमी DNA (एकल वृत्ताकार गुणसूत्र) के अलावा कई में छोटे वृत्ताकार प्लाज़्मिड, जो प्रतिजैविक प्रतिरोध जैसे गुण देते हैं और रूपांतरण में उपयोगी हैं। राइबोसोम के अलावा झिल्लीबद्ध अंगक नहीं। झिल्ली का विशिष्ट अंतर्वलन मीसोसोम। जीवाणु कोशिका चित्र देखें।Bacteria, BGA, mycoplasma, PPLO. Shapes: bacillus, coccus, vibrio, spirillum. Wall hai (mycoplasma chhodkar). Genetic material naked; plasmids (antibiotic resistance). Organelles nahi, sirf ribosomes. Mesosome. Bacteria diagram.Prokaryotic cells include bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO (pleuro-pneumonia like organisms). They are usually smaller than eukaryotic cells and multiply faster. Bacteria have four shapes: bacillus (rod), coccus (round), vibrio (comma) and spirillum (spiral). All of them (except mycoplasma) have a cell wall outside the membrane. They have no proper nucleus — the genetic material is naked, not covered by a nuclear membrane. Besides the main DNA (one circular chromosome), many have small circular DNA called plasmids. Plasmids give special features like antibiotic resistance and are used in transformation (putting new genes into bacteria). They have no membrane-covered organelles; only ribosomes are present. A special inward fold of the membrane is called the mesosome. See the bacterial cell diagram.
8.4.1Cell envelope and its modificationsकोशिका आवरण और रूपांतरणCell envelope
Most prokaryotes (especially bacteria) have a three-layered cell envelope: outermost glycocalyx → cell wall → plasma membrane, acting together as one protective unit. By staining they are Gram positive (take up Gram stain) or Gram negative. Glycocalyx is a loose sheath — slime layer — in some, or thick and tough — capsule — in others. The cell wall gives shape and a strong support preventing bursting or collapse. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable and structurally like that of eukaryotes.अधिकतर प्रोकैरियोट (विशेषकर जीवाणु) में तीन-स्तरीय कोशिका आवरण: सबसे बाहर ग्लाइकोकैलिक्स → कोशिका भित्ति → प्लाज़्मा झिल्ली, मिलकर एक रक्षात्मक इकाई। अभिरंजन से ग्राम धनात्मक (ग्राम अभिरंजक लेते) या ग्राम ऋणात्मक। ग्लाइकोकैलिक्स कुछ में ढीला आवरण — अवपंक पर्त (स्लाइम लेयर) — तो कुछ में मोटा, कठोर — संपुटिका (कैप्सूल)। कोशिका भित्ति आकार और मज़बूत सहारा देती है — फटने या सिकुड़ने से बचाती है। प्लाज़्मा झिल्ली वरणात्मक पारगम्य, यूकैरियोट जैसी संरचना।Envelope: glycocalyx → wall → membrane. Gram +ve / -ve. Glycocalyx: dheela = slime layer, mota = capsule. Wall shape aur support deti.Most prokaryotes (especially bacteria) have a cell envelope with three layers: the outer glycocalyx → the cell wall → the plasma membrane. These three work together as one protective cover. When stained, some bacteria take up the Gram stain (Gram positive) and others do not (Gram negative). In some bacteria the glycocalyx is a loose cover called the slime layer. In others it is thick and tough and is called a capsule. The cell wall gives shape and strong support, so the cell does not burst or collapse. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable (lets only some things pass) and is built like the membrane of eukaryotes.
Mesosome — infoldings of the plasma membrane as vesicles, tubules and lamellae. Functions: cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to daughter cells, respiration, secretion, increasing surface area and enzymatic content. In cyanobacteria other membranous extensions, chromatophores, contain pigments. Motile bacteria have flagella of three parts — filament (longest), hook and basal body. Pili (elongated tubular, special protein) and fimbriae (small bristle-like) do not help motility; fimbriae help some bacteria attach to rocks in streams and to host tissues.मीसोसोम — प्लाज़्मा झिल्ली के पुटिका, नलिका और पटलिका रूपी अंतर्वलन। कार्य: भित्ति निर्माण, DNA प्रतिकृति और संतति कोशिकाओं में वितरण, श्वसन, स्रवण, सतह क्षेत्र और एंजाइम मात्रा बढ़ाना। सायनोबैक्टीरिया में वर्णक युक्त झिल्लीमय विस्तार क्रोमैटोफ़ोर। गतिशील जीवाणुओं में तीन भागों वाला कशाभ — तंतु (सबसे लंबा), अंकुश और आधारी काय। पिली (लंबी नलिकाकार, विशेष प्रोटीन) और फ़िम्ब्री (छोटे शूक जैसे) गति में भाग नहीं लेते; फ़िम्ब्री कुछ जीवाणुओं को धाराओं की चट्टानों और पोषक ऊतकों से चिपकने में मदद करते हैं।Mesosome — membrane ki infoldings: wall banana, DNA replication + distribution, respiration, secretion, surface area. Cyanobacteria mein chromatophores. Flagellum = filament, hook, basal body. Pili, fimbriae — motility nahi; fimbriae chipakne mein.The mesosome is made of inward folds of the plasma membrane, in the form of small bags (vesicles), tubes and sheets. Its jobs: making the cell wall, copying DNA and sharing it to the daughter cells, respiration and secretion. It also increases the surface area and the amount of enzymes. In cyanobacteria, there are other membrane folds called chromatophores, which contain pigments. Bacteria that move have flagella with three parts — the filament (the longest part), the hook and the basal body. Pili (long tubes made of a special protein) and fimbriae (small bristle-like threads) do not help in movement. Fimbriae help some bacteria stick to rocks in streams and to the tissues of the host.
8.4.2Ribosomes and inclusion bodiesराइबोसोम और अंतर्विष्ट कायRibosomes, inclusion bodies
Prokaryotic ribosomes are attached to the plasma membrane, about 15–20 nm, made of 50S + 30S subunits forming 70S ribosomes — sites of protein synthesis. Several ribosomes on one mRNA form a chain — polyribosome (polysome), translating mRNA into proteins. Inclusion bodies store reserve material in the cytoplasm, not bound by membranes — phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules, glycogen granules; gas vacuoles occur in blue-green, purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.प्रोकैरियोटिक राइबोसोम प्लाज़्मा झिल्ली से जुड़े, लगभग 15–20 nm, 50S + 30S उप-इकाइयों से 70S — प्रोटीन संश्लेषण के स्थल। एक mRNA पर अनेक राइबोसोम की शृंखला — बहुराइबोसोम (पॉलीसोम), जो mRNA को प्रोटीन में अनूदित करती है। अंतर्विष्ट काय कोशिकाद्रव्य में संचित पदार्थ, झिल्ली से घिरे नहीं — फॉस्फेट कण, सायनोफ़ाइसी कण, ग्लाइकोजन कण; गैस रिक्तिकाएँ नील-हरित, बैंगनी और हरे प्रकाश-संश्लेषी जीवाणुओं में।Prokaryotic ribosome 70S (50S + 30S), 15–20 nm. Ek mRNA par kai = polysome. Inclusion bodies (membrane nahi): phosphate, cyanophycean, glycogen granules; gas vacuoles.In prokaryotes, ribosomes are attached to the plasma membrane. They are about 15–20 nm in size. They are made of two subunits, 50S + 30S, which together make 70S ribosomes. Ribosomes are where proteins are made. Many ribosomes can sit on one mRNA in a chain — this is a polyribosome (polysome). They read the mRNA and make proteins. Inclusion bodies store extra (reserve) material in the cytoplasm and have no membrane around them. Examples: phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules. Gas vacuoles are found in blue-green, purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
8.5Eukaryotic cellsयूकैरियोटिक कोशिकाएँEukaryotic cells
Protists, plants, animals and fungi. Extensive compartmentalisation of cytoplasm by membrane-bound organelles; an organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope; complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures; genetic material organised into chromosomes. Plant vs animal cells: plant cells have cell wall, plastids and a large central vacuole, absent in animal cells; animal cells have centrioles, absent in almost all plant cells.प्रोटिस्ट, पौधे, प्राणी और कवक। झिल्लीबद्ध अंगकों द्वारा कोशिकाद्रव्य का व्यापक कक्षीकरण; केंद्रक आवरण सहित संगठित केंद्रक; जटिल गमन और कोशिका-कंकाल संरचनाएँ; आनुवंशिक पदार्थ गुणसूत्रों में। पादप बनाम प्राणी कोशिका: पादप कोशिका में भित्ति, लवक और बड़ी केंद्रीय रिक्तिका (प्राणी में नहीं); प्राणी कोशिका में तारककेंद्र (लगभग सभी पादप कोशिकाओं में नहीं)।Protists, plants, animals, fungi. Compartmentalisation, organised nucleus, chromosomes. Plant: wall, plastids, badi vacuole; animal: centrioles.Eukaryotic cells are found in protists, plants, animals and fungi. Their cytoplasm is divided into many parts (compartmentalisation) by organelles covered with membranes. They have an organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope, complex structures for movement and support (cytoskeleton), and genetic material arranged in chromosomes. Plant vs animal cells: plant cells have a cell wall, plastids and a big central vacuole; animal cells do not have these. Animal cells have centrioles, which almost all plant cells do not have.
8.5.1Cell membraneकोशिका झिल्लीCell membrane
Studied after the electron microscope (1950s); chemical studies on human RBC membranes showed mainly lipids arranged in a bilayer, polar heads outside and hydrophobic tails inside; also cholesterol, proteins and carbohydrates. In human RBC: ~52% protein, ~40% lipids. Proteins: peripheral (on the surface) and integral (partly or totally buried). Fluid mosaic model (Singer and Nicolson, 1972): the quasi-fluid lipid bilayer lets proteins move laterally — fluidity, important for cell growth, intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division.इलेक्ट्रॉन सूक्ष्मदर्शी (1950 के दशक) के बाद अध्ययन; मानव RBC झिल्ली के रासायनिक अध्ययन से पता चला कि मुख्यतः लिपिड द्विस्तर में — ध्रुवीय सिर बाहर, जलविरागी पूँछ भीतर; साथ में कोलेस्ट्रॉल, प्रोटीन और कार्बोहाइड्रेट। मानव RBC में ~52% प्रोटीन, ~40% लिपिड। प्रोटीन: परिधीय (सतह पर) और अंतर्निहित (आंशिक या पूर्ण धँसे)। तरल किर्मीर मॉडल (सिंगर और निकोल्सन, 1972): अर्ध-तरल लिपिड द्विस्तर में प्रोटीन पार्श्व गति करते हैं — तरलता, जो कोशिका वृद्धि, अंतराकोशिकीय संधियों, स्रवण, अंतःकोशिकता, कोशिका विभाजन के लिए महत्वपूर्ण।RBC membrane: lipid bilayer (heads bahar, tails andar), cholesterol, proteins; 52% protein, 40% lipid. Peripheral aur integral proteins. Fluid mosaic (Singer & Nicolson 1972) — bilayer fluid, fluidity zaroori.Cell membrane: Its structure was studied after the electron microscope came in the 1950s. Chemical studies on human RBC membranes showed that it is mainly made of lipids arranged in two layers (a bilayer). The polar (water-loving) heads face outside, and the hydrophobic (water-hating) tails face inside. It also has cholesterol, proteins and carbohydrates. In the human RBC membrane there is ~52% protein and ~40% lipids. Proteins are of two kinds: peripheral (on the surface) and integral (partly or fully buried in the membrane). The fluid mosaic model was given by Singer and Nicolson (1972). It says the lipid bilayer is almost fluid (quasi-fluid), so proteins can move sideways within it. This fluidity is important for cell growth, joints between cells (intercellular junctions), secretion, endocytosis (taking things in) and cell division.
The membrane is selectively permeable. Passive transport (no energy): neutral solutes move by simple diffusion from higher to lower concentration; water moves by diffusion = osmosis. Polar molecules cannot cross the non-polar bilayer — they need a carrier protein. Movement against the concentration gradient (lower → higher) needs energy from ATP = active transport, e.g. the Na⁺/K⁺ pump.झिल्ली वरणात्मक पारगम्य है। निष्क्रिय परिवहन (ऊर्जा नहीं): उदासीन विलेय सरल विसरण से अधिक से कम सांद्रता की ओर; जल का विसरण = परासरण। ध्रुवीय अणु अध्रुवीय द्विस्तर पार नहीं कर सकते — इन्हें वाहक प्रोटीन चाहिए। सांद्रता प्रवणता के विरुद्ध (कम → अधिक) गति में ATP की ऊर्जा = सक्रिय परिवहन, जैसे Na⁺/K⁺ पंप।Selectively permeable. Passive: neutral solutes simple diffusion; paani = osmosis. Polar molecules ko carrier protein. Gradient ke khilaf = active transport (ATP), jaise Na⁺/K⁺ pump.The membrane is selectively permeable — it lets some things pass but not others. Passive transport needs no energy. Neutral substances move by simple diffusion, from higher concentration to lower concentration. Water also moves by diffusion; this is called osmosis. Polar molecules cannot pass through the non-polar lipid bilayer, so they need a carrier protein to carry them across. Moving substances against the concentration gradient (from lower to higher) needs energy from ATP. This is active transport, for example the Na⁺/K⁺ pump.
8.5.2Cell wallकोशिका भित्तिCell wall
A non-living rigid layer outside the plasma membrane of fungi and plants — gives shape, protects from mechanical damage and infection, helps cell-to-cell interaction, barrier to unwanted macromolecules. Algae: cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate; other plants: cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins. Young cell = primary wall (capable of growth; diminishes as the cell matures); secondary wall forms on the inner side. Middle lamella, mainly calcium pectate, glues neighbouring cells; wall and middle lamella are traversed by plasmodesmata connecting the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.कवकों और पौधों में प्लाज़्मा झिल्ली के बाहर निर्जीव दृढ़ परत — आकार देती है, यांत्रिक क्षति और संक्रमण से बचाती है, कोशिकाओं के पारस्परिक संबंध में मदद, अवांछित बड़े अणुओं के लिए अवरोध। शैवाल: सेलुलोस, गैलेक्टन, मैनन और कैल्शियम कार्बोनेट जैसे खनिज; अन्य पौधे: सेलुलोस, हेमीसेलुलोस, पेक्टिन और प्रोटीन। नई कोशिका = प्राथमिक भित्ति (वृद्धि में सक्षम; परिपक्वता पर घटती); द्वितीयक भित्ति भीतरी ओर बनती है। मध्य पटलिका, मुख्यतः कैल्शियम पेक्टेट, पड़ोसी कोशिकाओं को जोड़ती है; भित्ति और मध्य पटलिका को जीवद्रव्य तंतु (प्लाज़्मोडेस्मेटा) पार करते हैं।Fungi aur plants mein. Algae: cellulose, galactans, mannans, CaCO₃; plants: cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins. Primary wall (badh sakti), secondary wall andar ki taraf. Middle lamella = calcium pectate. Plasmodesmata.The cell wall is a non-living, stiff layer outside the plasma membrane of fungi and plants. It gives shape to the cell and protects it from damage and infection. It helps cells interact with each other and stops unwanted big molecules from getting in. In algae, the wall is made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate. In other plants, it is made of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins. A young cell has a primary wall, which can grow; it becomes thinner as the cell gets older. A secondary wall then forms on the inner side. The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate that glues neighbouring cells together. Tiny channels called plasmodesmata pass through the wall and middle lamella and join the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
8.5.3Endomembrane systemअंतःझिल्ली तंत्रEndomembrane system
Membranous organelles whose functions are coordinated: ER, Golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles. Mitochondria, chloroplasts and peroxisomes are not part of it (their functions are not coordinated with these).वे झिल्लीमय अंगक जिनके कार्य समन्वित हैं: ER, गॉल्जी सम्मिश्र, लयनकाय और रिक्तिकाएँ। सूत्रकणिका, हरितलवक और परऑक्सीसोम इसका भाग नहीं (इनके कार्य इनसे समन्वित नहीं)।Coordinated organelles: ER, Golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles. Mitochondria, chloroplast, peroxisome nahi.The endomembrane system is a group of membrane organelles whose jobs are coordinated (they work together). It includes the ER, Golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles. Mitochondria, chloroplasts and peroxisomes are not part of it, because their jobs are not linked with these organelles.
- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) — network of tiny tubules dividing the cell into luminal (inside ER) and extra-luminal (cytoplasm) compartments. Rough ER (RER) bears ribosomes — protein synthesis and secretion; extensive and continuous with the outer nuclear membrane. Smooth ER (SER) — lipid synthesis; in animals lipid-like steroidal hormones are made here.अंतर्द्रव्यी जालिका (ER) — सूक्ष्म नलिकाओं का जाल जो कोशिका को अवकाशिका (ER के भीतर) और बाह्य अवकाशिका (कोशिकाद्रव्य) में बाँटता है। खुरदरी ER पर राइबोसोम — प्रोटीन संश्लेषण और स्रवण; केंद्रक की बाहरी झिल्ली से सतत। चिकनी ER — लिपिड संश्लेषण; प्राणियों में स्टेरॉयड हॉर्मोन यहीं।ER — luminal/extra-luminal. RER (ribosomes) — protein synthesis, secretion; SER — lipids, steroid hormones.
- Golgi apparatus — first seen by Camillo Golgi (1898); flat disc-shaped cisternae (0.5–1.0 µm) stacked in parallel; cis (forming) face (convex) and trans (maturing) face (concave), different but interconnected. Main function: packaging materials for intra-cellular targets or secretion; ER vesicles fuse with the cis face and move to the trans face. Proteins from ER are modified here; it is the important site of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.गॉल्जी उपकरण — कैमिलो गॉल्जी (1898) ने पहले देखा; चपटी बिंब-आकार कुंडिकाएँ (0.5–1.0 µm) समानांतर चट्टों में; सिस (निर्माणकारी) सतह (उत्तल) और ट्रांस (परिपक्व) सतह (अवतल), अलग पर परस्पर जुड़ी। मुख्य कार्य: पदार्थों का संवेष्टन — कोशिका के भीतर या बाहर स्रवण हेतु; ER की पुटिकाएँ सिस सतह से जुड़कर ट्रांस सतह की ओर। ER के प्रोटीन यहाँ रूपांतरित; ग्लाइकोप्रोटीन और ग्लाइकोलिपिड निर्माण का मुख्य स्थल।Golgi — Camillo Golgi 1898; cisternae; cis (forming) aur trans (maturing) face. Kaam: packaging, secretion; glycoproteins, glycolipids.
- Lysosomes — membrane-bound vesicles formed by packaging in the Golgi; rich in hydrolytic enzymes (lipases, proteases, carbohydrases) active at acidic pH — digest carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.लयनकाय — गॉल्जी में संवेष्टन से बनी झिल्लीबद्ध पुटिकाएँ; जल-अपघटनी एंजाइमों (लाइपेज़, प्रोटिएज़, कार्बोहाइड्रेज़) से भरपूर, अम्लीय pH पर सक्रिय — कार्बोहाइड्रेट, प्रोटीन, लिपिड और न्यूक्लिक अम्ल पचाते हैं।Lysosomes — Golgi se; hydrolytic enzymes, acidic pH; sab pachate.
- Vacuoles — membrane-bound space with water, sap, excretory products and other unneeded materials; bound by a single membrane, the tonoplast. In plant cells up to 90% of cell volume. The tonoplast moves ions and other materials against concentration gradients into the vacuole, so their concentration is higher in the vacuole. Amoeba: contractile vacuole — osmoregulation and excretion; protists: food vacuoles formed by engulfing food.रिक्तिकाएँ — जल, रस, उत्सर्जी व अनुपयोगी पदार्थों वाला झिल्लीबद्ध स्थान; एकल झिल्ली टोनोप्लास्ट से घिरी। पादप कोशिकाओं में आयतन का 90% तक। टोनोप्लास्ट आयनों आदि को सांद्रता प्रवणता के विरुद्ध रिक्तिका में ले जाता है, इसलिए रिक्तिका में सांद्रता अधिक। अमीबा: संकुचनशील रिक्तिका — परासरण नियमन व उत्सर्जन; प्रोटिस्ट: भोजन निगलने से खाद्य रिक्तिका।Vacuole — tonoplast; plant mein 90% tak; gradient ke khilaf ions. Amoeba: contractile vacuole; food vacuole.
8.5.4Mitochondriaसूत्रकणिका (माइटोकॉन्ड्रिया)Mitochondria
Not easily seen unless specially stained; number per cell varies with its physiological activity. Sausage-shaped/cylindrical, diameter 0.2–1.0 µm (avg 0.5) and length 1.0–4.1 µm. Double membrane: outer membrane forms the boundary; the inter-membrane space (outer compartment) and the dense homogeneous matrix (inner compartment). The inner membrane forms infoldings, cristae, towards the matrix — increasing surface area. Each membrane has its own specific enzymes. Mitochondria are sites of aerobic respiration — they produce ATP, so are called power houses of the cell. The matrix has a single circular DNA, a few RNA, 70S ribosomes and components for protein synthesis; they divide by fission. 3D mitochondrion3Dविशेष अभिरंजन बिना आसानी से नहीं दिखतीं; संख्या कोशिका की शारीरिक सक्रियता पर निर्भर। सॉसेज/बेलनाकार, व्यास 0.2–1.0 µm (औसत 0.5) और लंबाई 1.0–4.1 µm। दोहरी झिल्ली: बाहरी झिल्ली सीमा बनाती है; अंतराझिल्ली अवकाश (बाहरी कक्ष) और सघन समांगी आधात्री (भीतरी कक्ष)। भीतरी झिल्ली आधात्री की ओर अंतर्वलन — क्रिस्टी — बनाती है, जिससे सतह क्षेत्र बढ़ता है। दोनों झिल्लियों के अपने विशिष्ट एंजाइम। सूत्रकणिकाएँ वायवीय श्वसन के स्थल हैं — ATP बनाती हैं, इसलिए कोशिका का शक्ति गृह। आधात्री में एकल वृत्ताकार DNA, कुछ RNA, 70S राइबोसोम और प्रोटीन संश्लेषण के घटक; विखंडन से विभाजन। 3D सूत्रकणिका3DSausage jaisi, 0.2–1.0 µm × 1.0–4.1 µm. Double membrane: outer, inter-membrane space, matrix; inner membrane → cristae. Aerobic respiration, ATP — powerhouse. Circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, fission. 3D mitochondrion3DMitochondria cannot be seen easily unless they are specially stained. Their number in a cell depends on how active the cell is. They are sausage-shaped or cylinder-shaped, with a diameter of 0.2–1.0 µm (average 0.5 µm) and a length of 1.0–4.1 µm. They have a double membrane. The outer membrane forms the boundary. Inside there are two spaces: the inter-membrane space (outer compartment) and the thick, even matrix (inner compartment). The inner membrane folds inwards towards the matrix; these folds are called cristae. They increase the surface area. Each membrane has its own special enzymes. Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration (respiration using oxygen). They make ATP (energy), so they are called the power houses of the cell. The matrix has one circular DNA, a few RNA, 70S ribosomes and the parts needed to make proteins. Mitochondria divide by fission (splitting). 3D mitochondrion3D
8.5.5PlastidsलवकPlastids
Found in all plant cells and in euglenoides; large, easily seen; bear pigments. Types by pigment: chloroplasts (chlorophyll and carotenoids — trap light for photosynthesis), chromoplasts (fat-soluble carotenoids — carotene, xanthophylls — giving yellow, orange or red colour), leucoplasts (colourless, store nutrients): amyloplasts store starch (potato), elaioplasts store oils and fats, aleuroplasts store proteins.सभी पादप कोशिकाओं और यूग्लीनॉयड में; बड़े, आसानी से दिखते; वर्णक युक्त। वर्णक के आधार पर: हरितलवक (पर्णहरित और कैरोटिनॉयड — प्रकाश-संश्लेषण हेतु प्रकाश ग्रहण), वर्णीलवक (वसा-विलेय कैरोटिनॉयड — कैरोटीन, ज़ैन्थोफ़िल — पीला, नारंगी या लाल रंग), अवर्णीलवक (रंगहीन, पोषक संचय): मंडलवक — मंड (आलू), तैललवक — तेल और वसा, प्रोटीनलवक — प्रोटीन।Sab plant cells + euglenoids. Chloroplasts (chlorophyll), chromoplasts (carotene, xanthophyll — peela/naranga/laal), leucoplasts (rangheen): amyloplasts — starch (aloo), elaioplasts — tel, aleuroplasts — protein.Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoides. They are big and easy to see, and they carry pigments. By pigment, there are three types. Chloroplasts have chlorophyll and carotenoids, which trap light for photosynthesis. Chromoplasts have fat-soluble carotenoids (carotene, xanthophylls), which give yellow, orange or red colour. Leucoplasts are colourless and store food. Among leucoplasts: amyloplasts store starch (potato), elaioplasts store oils and fats, and aleuroplasts store proteins.
Most chloroplasts are in the mesophyll cells of leaves — lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or ribbon-like, 5–10 µm long and 2–4 µm wide; from 1 per cell in Chlamydomonas to 20–40 per cell in mesophyll. Double membrane (outer, and the relatively less permeable inner membrane). The space inside is the stroma; flattened membranous sacs, thylakoids, are stacked like coins into grana, connected by flat membranous tubules, the stroma lamellae. Thylakoid membranes enclose a space, the lumen. The stroma has enzymes for synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins, small double-stranded circular DNA and ribosomes. Chlorophyll pigments are in the thylakoids. Chloroplast ribosomes (70S) are smaller than cytoplasmic ones (80S). 3D chloroplast3Dअधिकतर हरितलवक पत्तियों की पर्णमध्योतक कोशिकाओं में — लेंस, अंडाकार, गोल, बिंब या फीते जैसे, 5–10 µm लंबे और 2–4 µm चौड़े; क्लैमाइडोमोनास में 1 प्रति कोशिका से पर्णमध्योतक में 20–40 प्रति कोशिका। दोहरी झिल्ली (बाहरी और अपेक्षाकृत कम पारगम्य भीतरी)। भीतर का स्थान पीठिका; चपटी झिल्लीमय थैलियाँ — थायलाकॉइड — सिक्कों की तरह चट्टों में ग्रैना, जो चपटी नलिकाओं — पीठिका पटलिकाओं — से जुड़े। थायलाकॉइड झिल्ली के भीतर अवकाशिका (ल्यूमेन)। पीठिका में कार्बोहाइड्रेट व प्रोटीन संश्लेषण के एंजाइम, छोटा द्विरज्जुक वृत्ताकार DNA और राइबोसोम। पर्णहरित वर्णक थायलाकॉइड में। हरितलवक के राइबोसोम (70S) कोशिकाद्रव्यी (80S) से छोटे। 3D हरितलवक3DZyaadatar mesophyll mein; 5–10 µm × 2–4 µm; Chlamydomonas mein 1, mesophyll mein 20–40. Outer + inner membrane; stroma; thylakoids ke dher = grana; stroma lamellae; lumen. Circular DNA, 70S ribosomes. 3D chloroplast3DMost chloroplasts are in the mesophyll cells of leaves. They can be lens-shaped, oval, round, disc-like or ribbon-like. They are 5–10 µm long and 2–4 µm wide. Their number ranges from 1 per cell in Chlamydomonas to 20–40 per cell in the mesophyll. They have a double membrane: an outer one and an inner one; the inner membrane lets fewer things pass. The space inside is the stroma. Inside it are flat membrane bags called thylakoids, stacked like coins into piles called grana. The grana are joined by flat membrane tubes called stroma lamellae. The thylakoid membrane encloses a space called the lumen. The stroma has enzymes to make carbohydrates and proteins, a small double-stranded circular DNA, and ribosomes. The chlorophyll pigments are in the thylakoids. Chloroplast ribosomes (70S) are smaller than the ribosomes in the cytoplasm (80S). 3D chloroplast3D
8.5.6RibosomesराइबोसोमRibosomes
Granular structures first observed as dense particles by George Palade (1953); made of RNA and proteins, not surrounded by any membrane. Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S (subunits 60S + 40S); prokaryotic 70S (50S + 30S). S (Svedberg unit) = sedimentation coefficient — indirectly a measure of density and size. Both 70S and 80S have two subunits.कणिकामय संरचनाएँ, जॉर्ज पैलाड (1953) ने सघन कणों के रूप में देखीं; RNA और प्रोटीन से बनी, किसी झिल्ली से घिरी नहीं। यूकैरियोटिक राइबोसोम 80S (उप-इकाइयाँ 60S + 40S); प्रोकैरियोटिक 70S (50S + 30S)। S (स्वेडबर्ग इकाई) = अवसादन गुणांक — घनत्व और आकार का अप्रत्यक्ष माप। 70S और 80S दोनों में दो उप-इकाइयाँ।George Palade (1953); RNA + protein, membrane nahi. Eukaryotic 80S (60S + 40S), prokaryotic 70S (50S + 30S). S = Svedberg (sedimentation coefficient).Ribosomes are tiny grain-like structures. George Palade (1953) first saw them as dense particles. They are made of RNA and proteins and are not covered by any membrane. Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S (subunits 60S + 40S). Prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S (subunits 50S + 30S). S (Svedberg unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient — how fast a particle settles when spun. It is an indirect measure of density and size. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes have two subunits.
8.5.7Cytoskeletonकोशिका-कंकालCytoskeleton
An elaborate network of filamentous proteins — microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments — in the cytoplasm. Functions: mechanical support, motility and maintenance of cell shape.कोशिकाद्रव्य में तंतुमय प्रोटीनों का विस्तृत जाल — सूक्ष्मनलिकाएँ, सूक्ष्मतंतु और मध्यवर्ती तंतु। कार्य: यांत्रिक सहारा, गतिशीलता और कोशिका का आकार बनाए रखना।Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments. Kaam: support, motility, shape.The cytoskeleton is a detailed network of protein threads in the cytoplasm — microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments. Its jobs: giving mechanical support, helping movement (motility), and keeping the shape of the cell.
8.5.8Cilia and flagellaपक्ष्माभ और कशाभCilia aur flagella
Hair-like outgrowths of the membrane. Cilia are small, work like oars to move the cell or the surrounding fluid; flagella are comparatively longer and move the cell. (Prokaryotic flagella are structurally different.) Covered with plasma membrane; the core, the axoneme, has nine doublets of radially arranged peripheral microtubules and a pair of centrally located microtubules — the 9+2 array. Central tubules are connected by bridges and enclosed by a central sheath, which is connected to each peripheral doublet by a radial spoke — so 9 radial spokes; peripheral doublets are interconnected by linkers. Both emerge from centriole-like basal bodies.झिल्ली के बाल जैसे उभार। पक्ष्माभ छोटे, पतवार की तरह कोशिका या आसपास के द्रव को चलाते हैं; कशाभ अपेक्षाकृत लंबे, कोशिका को चलाते हैं। (प्रोकैरियोटिक कशाभ संरचना में भिन्न।) प्लाज़्मा झिल्ली से ढके; केंद्रीय भाग एक्सोनीम में अरीय व्यवस्थित परिधीय सूक्ष्मनलिकाओं के नौ द्विक और केंद्र में सूक्ष्मनलिकाओं की एक जोड़ी — 9+2 व्यवस्था। केंद्रीय नलिकाएँ सेतुओं से जुड़ी, केंद्रीय आच्छद से घिरी, जो हर परिधीय द्विक से अरीय तान से जुड़ा — इस प्रकार 9 अरीय तान; परिधीय द्विक संयोजकों से जुड़े। दोनों तारककेंद्र जैसे आधारी काय से निकलते हैं।Cilia chhote, chappu jaise; flagella lambe. Axoneme: 9 peripheral doublets + 2 central = 9+2; radial spokes (9), linkers. Basal body se.Cilia and flagella are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane. Cilia are small and work like oars (boat paddles) to move the cell or the fluid around it. Flagella are longer and move the cell. (Flagella of prokaryotes are built differently.) They are covered by the plasma membrane. Their core is called the axoneme. It has nine doublets (pairs) of microtubules arranged in a ring around the edge, and a pair of microtubules in the centre. This is called the 9+2 array. The two central tubules are joined by bridges and covered by a central sheath. The sheath is joined to each outer doublet by a radial spoke, so there are 9 radial spokes. The outer doublets are joined to each other by linkers. Both cilia and flagella grow out of centriole-like structures called basal bodies. 👉 nine doublets of radially arranged peripheral microtubules 👉 a pair of centrally located microtubules
8.5.9Centrosome and centriolesतारककाय और तारककेंद्रCentrosome aur centrioles
The centrosome usually has two cylindrical centrioles lying perpendicular to each other, surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar material. Each has a cartwheel organisation: nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin, each a triplet; adjacent triplets are linked. The central part, the hub, is proteinaceous and connected to the peripheral triplets by radial spokes. Centrioles form the basal body of cilia/flagella and the spindle fibres (spindle apparatus) during cell division in animal cells.तारककाय में प्रायः दो बेलनाकार तारककेंद्र, एक-दूसरे के लंबवत, अनाकार परितारककेंद्री पदार्थ से घिरे। हर तारककेंद्र में गाड़ी के पहिए जैसी संरचना: ट्यूबुलिन के नौ समान दूरी पर परिधीय तंतुक, प्रत्येक त्रिक; पास-पास के त्रिक जुड़े। केंद्रीय भाग धुरी (हब) प्रोटीनी, अरीय तानों से परिधीय त्रिकों से जुड़ा। तारककेंद्र पक्ष्माभ/कशाभ का आधारी काय और प्राणी कोशिका विभाजन में तर्कु तंतु बनाते हैं।Centrosome = do perpendicular centrioles. Cartwheel: 9 peripheral triplets (tubulin), hub, radial spokes. Kaam: basal body, spindle fibres.The centrosome usually has two cylinder-shaped centrioles. They lie at right angles (perpendicular) to each other and are surrounded by shapeless pericentriolar material. Each centriole looks like a cartwheel. It has nine evenly spaced outer fibrils made of tubulin protein, and each fibril is a triplet (a group of three). Neighbouring triplets are joined. The central part, the hub, is made of protein and is joined to the outer triplets by radial spokes. Centrioles form the basal body of cilia and flagella. In animal cells they also form the spindle fibres (spindle apparatus) during cell division.
8.5.10Nucleusकेंद्रकNucleus
First described by Robert Brown (1831); the material stained by basic dyes was named chromatin by Flemming. The interphase nucleus has extended nucleoprotein fibres — chromatin, nuclear matrix and one or more spherical nucleoli. The nuclear envelope has two parallel membranes with a perinuclear space (10–50 nm); the outer membrane usually stays continuous with the ER and bears ribosomes. It is interrupted by nuclear pores (fusion of the two membranes) — passages for RNA and proteins in both directions between nucleus and cytoplasm. Usually one nucleus per cell; some are multinucleate; mammalian RBCs and sieve tube cells lack a nucleus. Nucleoli — non-membrane bodies continuous with the nucleoplasm; sites of active ribosomal RNA synthesis; larger and more numerous in cells actively making proteins.सर्वप्रथम रॉबर्ट ब्राउन (1831) ने वर्णन किया; क्षारीय रंजकों से रंगे पदार्थ को फ्लेमिंग ने क्रोमैटिन नाम दिया। अंतरावस्था केंद्रक में फैले न्यूक्लियोप्रोटीन तंतु — क्रोमैटिन, केंद्रकीय आधात्री और एक या अधिक गोलाकार केंद्रिक। केंद्रक आवरण में दो समानांतर झिल्लियाँ, बीच में परिकेंद्रकी अवकाश (10–50 nm); बाहरी झिल्ली प्रायः ER से सतत और राइबोसोम युक्त। आवरण केंद्रक छिद्रों (दोनों झिल्लियों के संलयन) से बाधित — केंद्रक और कोशिकाद्रव्य के बीच RNA और प्रोटीन का दोनों दिशाओं में मार्ग। प्रायः एक केंद्रक; कुछ बहुकेंद्रकी; स्तनधारी RBC और चालनी नलिका कोशिकाओं में केंद्रक नहीं। केंद्रिक — झिल्ली रहित, केंद्रकद्रव्य से सतत; सक्रिय राइबोसोमीय RNA संश्लेषण के स्थल; प्रोटीन बनाने वाली कोशिकाओं में बड़े और अधिक।Robert Brown (1831); chromatin naam Flemming ne. Interphase: chromatin, matrix, nucleoli. Nuclear envelope — 2 membranes, perinuclear space 10–50 nm, outer ER se judi. Nuclear pores — RNA, protein dono taraf. Mammal RBC, sieve tube mein nucleus nahi. Nucleolus — rRNA synthesis. 3D nucleus3DThe nucleus was first described by Robert Brown (1831). Later, Flemming named the material that takes up basic dyes chromatin. A nucleus that is not dividing (interphase nucleus) has loose, stretched-out nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin, a nuclear matrix, and one or more round nucleoli. The nuclear envelope has two parallel membranes with a gap between them, the perinuclear space (10–50 nm). The outer membrane usually stays joined with the ER and has ribosomes on it. The envelope has openings called nuclear pores, where the two membranes join. Through these pores, RNA and proteins move in both directions between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Usually a cell has one nucleus; some cells have many. Mammalian RBCs and sieve tube cells have no nucleus. Nucleoli are bodies with no membrane, joined with the rest of the nucleoplasm. They are where ribosomal RNA is actively made. They are bigger and more in number in cells that are making a lot of protein.
During division, chromatin condenses into chromosomes. Chromatin = DNA + basic proteins (histones) + non-histone proteins + RNA. A single human cell has about two metre long DNA in 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Each chromosome has a primary constriction, the centromere, with disc-shaped kinetochores on its sides. By centromere position: metacentric (middle, two equal arms), sub-metacentric (slightly away — one shorter, one longer arm), acrocentric (near the end — one extremely short, one very long arm) and telocentric (terminal). Some chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location, giving a small fragment — the satellite. 3D chromosome3Dविभाजन के समय क्रोमैटिन संघनित होकर गुणसूत्र बनाता है। क्रोमैटिन = DNA + क्षारीय प्रोटीन (हिस्टोन) + अहिस्टोन प्रोटीन + RNA। एक मानव कोशिका में लगभग दो मीटर लंबा DNA 46 गुणसूत्रों (23 जोड़ी) में। हर गुणसूत्र में प्राथमिक संकीर्णन — गुणसूत्रबिंदु (सेंट्रोमियर), जिसके दोनों ओर बिंब-आकार काइनेटोकोर। गुणसूत्रबिंदु की स्थिति से: मध्यकेंद्री (बीच में, दो बराबर भुजाएँ), उपमध्यकेंद्री (थोड़ा हटकर — एक छोटी, एक लंबी), अग्रबिंदु (सिरे के पास — एक अत्यंत छोटी, एक बहुत लंबी) और अंतकेंद्री (सिरे पर)। कुछ गुणसूत्रों में निश्चित स्थान पर अरंजित द्वितीयक संकीर्णन, जिससे छोटा खंड — अनुषंगी (सैटेलाइट)। 3D गुणसूत्र3DDivision mein chromatin → chromosomes. Chromatin = DNA + histones + non-histone + RNA. Insaan ki ek cell mein ~2 m DNA, 46 chromosomes. Centromere + kinetochores. Metacentric, sub-metacentric, acrocentric, telocentric. Satellite. 3D chromosome3DWhen a cell divides, the chromatin becomes thick and packed into chromosomes. Chromatin = DNA + basic proteins (histones) + non-histone proteins + RNA. One human cell has about two metre long DNA packed into 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Each chromosome has a narrow point called the primary constriction, or centromere. On its sides are disc-shaped structures called kinetochores. Based on where the centromere is, chromosomes are of four types. metacentric: centromere in the middle, two equal arms. sub-metacentric: centromere a little away from the middle, so one arm is shorter and one is longer. acrocentric: centromere near the end, so one arm is very short and one is very long. telocentric: centromere at the very end. Some chromosomes have a secondary constriction that does not take stain, always at the same place. It cuts off a small piece called the satellite. 3D chromosome3D
8.5.11Microbodiesसूक्ष्मकायMicrobodies
Many minute membrane-bound vesicles containing various enzymes, found in both plant and animal cells.विभिन्न एंजाइमों वाली अनेक सूक्ष्म झिल्लीबद्ध पुटिकाएँ, पादप और प्राणी दोनों कोशिकाओं में।Enzymes wali chhoti membrane-bound vesicles, plant + animal dono mein.Microbodies are many tiny bags (vesicles) covered by a membrane, containing different enzymes. They are found in both plant and animal cells.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
★ Yaad rakho — quick revision★ याद रखो — झटपट दोहराव★ Yaad rakho — quick revision
- Cell theory: Schleiden (plants, 1838) + Schwann (animals, 1839); Virchow (1855): Omnis cellula-e cellula — cells arise from pre-existing cells.कोशिका सिद्धांत: श्लाइडेन (पादप, 1838) + श्वान (प्राणी, 1839); विरशॉ (1855): ओमनिस सेलुला-ई सेलुला — कोशिकाएँ पूर्व-स्थित कोशिकाओं से बनती हैं।Schleiden + Schwann; Virchow: Omnis cellula-e cellula.
- Robert Brown discovered the nucleus; Anton von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell.रॉबर्ट ब्राउन ने केंद्रक खोजा; ल्यूवेनहॉक ने पहली बार जीवित कोशिका देखी।Brown = nucleus; Leeuwenhoek = live cell.
- Prokaryotes: no membrane-bound organelles, naked circular DNA (nucleoid), plasmids, 70S ribosomes, mesosomes.प्रोकैरियोट: झिल्लीबद्ध अंगक नहीं, नग्न वृत्ताकार DNA (केंद्रकाभ), प्लाज़्मिड, 70S राइबोसोम, मीज़ोसोम।Prokaryote: no membrane organelles, 70S, mesosome.
- Membrane = lipid bilayer + proteins; fluid mosaic model — Singer and Nicolson (1972). Human RBC membrane ≈ 52% protein, 40% lipid.झिल्ली = लिपिड द्विपरत + प्रोटीन; तरल किर्मीर मॉडल — सिंगर और निकोल्सन (1972)। मानव RBC झिल्ली ≈ 52% प्रोटीन, 40% लिपिड।Fluid mosaic — Singer & Nicolson 1972.
- Endomembrane system = ER + Golgi + lysosomes + vacuoles (NOT mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes).अंतःझिल्ली तंत्र = ER + गॉल्जी + लयनकाय + रिक्तिकाएँ (सूत्रकणिका, हरितलवक, परऑक्सीसोम नहीं)।Endomembrane: ER, Golgi, lysosome, vacuole.
- Golgi: cis (forming) face → trans (maturing) face; site of glycoprotein and glycolipid formation.गॉल्जी: सिस (निर्माण) सतह → ट्रांस (परिपक्व) सतह; ग्लाइकोप्रोटीन व ग्लाइकोलिपिड बनते हैं।Golgi: cis → trans; glycoproteins.
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts: double membrane, own circular DNA + 70S ribosomes; mitochondria = powerhouse (ATP).सूत्रकणिका और हरितलवक: दोहरी झिल्ली, अपना वृत्ताकार DNA + 70S राइबोसोम; सूत्रकणिका = ऊर्जा घर (ATP)।Mito + chloroplast: double membrane, own DNA.
- Ribosomes: eukaryotes 80S (60S + 40S), prokaryotes 70S (50S + 30S); S = Svedberg unit (sedimentation coefficient).राइबोसोम: यूकैरियोट 80S (60S + 40S), प्रोकैरियोट 70S (50S + 30S); S = स्वेडबर्ग इकाई।80S = 60+40; 70S = 50+30.
- Cilia/flagella axoneme: 9 + 2 microtubules; basal body and centriole: 9 triplets, cartwheel.पक्ष्माभ/कशाभ अक्षसूत्र: 9 + 2 सूक्ष्मनलिकाएँ; आधारीय काय और तारककेंद्र: 9 त्रिक, गाड़ी के पहिये जैसा।9+2 axoneme; centriole 9 triplets.
- Chromosomes by centromere: metacentric (middle), sub-metacentric, acrocentric (near end), telocentric (at end).गुणसूत्रबिंदु के आधार पर: मध्यकेंद्री, उपमध्यकेंद्री, अग्रबिंदु, अंतकेंद्री।Meta, sub-meta, acro, telo.
⚠ Common mistakes⚠ आम गलतियाँ⚠ Common mistakes
- Saying Robert Brown discovered the cell — Robert Hooke named cells; Brown discovered the nucleus.रॉबर्ट ब्राउन ने कोशिका खोजी कहना — ब्राउन ने केंद्रक खोजा था।Brown = nucleus, cell nahi.
- Putting mitochondria in the endomembrane system — their functions are not coordinated with ER/Golgi, so they are excluded.सूत्रकणिका को अंतःझिल्ली तंत्र में गिनना — उनका कार्य ER/गॉल्जी से समन्वित नहीं, इसलिए शामिल नहीं।Mitochondria endomembrane mein nahi.
- Adding Svedberg units: 60S + 40S = 100S — wrong; S depends on shape and density, so the whole ribosome is 80S.स्वेडबर्ग इकाइयाँ जोड़ना: 60S + 40S = 100S — गलत; पूरा राइबोसोम 80S है।60S + 40S = 80S, 100S nahi.
- Calling the centriole “9 + 2” — the 9 + 2 pattern is the axoneme; centriole and basal body have 9 peripheral triplets and no central pair.तारककेंद्र को “9 + 2” कहना — 9 + 2 अक्षसूत्र में है; तारककेंद्र में 9 परिधीय त्रिक।Centriole = 9 triplets, 9+2 nahi.
- Saying prokaryotes have no ribosomes — they have 70S ribosomes (only membrane-bound organelles are absent).प्रोकैरियोट में राइबोसोम नहीं कहना — उनमें 70S राइबोसोम होते हैं।Prokaryote mein 70S ribosomes hote hain.
✎ NCERT questions — short answers✎ NCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तर✎ NCERT questions — short answers
NCERT exercises (tap a question to see the answer)NCERT अभ्यास (उत्तर देखने के लिए प्रश्न पर टैप करें)NCERT exercises (answer dekhne ke liye question par tap kijiye)
1. Which of the following is not correct? (a) Robert Brown discovered the cell. (b) Schleiden and Schwann formulated the cell theory. (c) Virchow explained that cells are formed from pre-existing cells. (d) A unicellular organism carries out its life activities within a single cell.1. निम्न में कौन सही नहीं है? (a) रॉबर्ट ब्राउन ने कोशिका की खोज की। (b) श्लाइडेन और श्वान ने कोशिका सिद्धांत दिया। (c) विरशॉ ने बताया कि कोशिकाएँ पूर्व-स्थित कोशिकाओं से बनती हैं। (d) एककोशिक जीव अपने जीवन के कार्य एक कोशिका में करते हैं।1. Kaun sahi nahi hai? (a) Robert Brown ne cell khoja …
2. New cells generate from (a) bacterial fermentation (b) regeneration of old cells (c) pre-existing cells (d) abiotic materials2. नई कोशिकाएँ बनती हैं (a) जीवाणु किण्वन से (b) पुरानी कोशिकाओं के पुनर्जनन से (c) पूर्व-स्थित कोशिकाओं से (d) अजैविक पदार्थों से2. Nayi cells kahan se?
3. Match: (a) Cristae (b) Cisternae (c) Thylakoids with (i) flat membranous sacs in stroma (ii) infoldings in mitochondria (iii) disc-shaped sacs in Golgi apparatus.3. मिलान: (a) क्रिस्टी (b) सिस्टर्नी (c) थाइलेकॉइड को (i) पीठिका में चपटी झिल्लीमय थैलियाँ (ii) सूत्रकणिका में अंतर्वलन (iii) गॉल्जी उपकरण में डिस्क जैसी थैलियाँ से।3. Match: cristae, cisternae, thylakoids.
4. Which of the following is correct: (a) Cells of all living organisms have a nucleus. (b) Both animal and plant cells have a well defined cell wall. (c) In prokaryotes, there are no membrane bound organelles. (d) Cells are formed de novo from abiotic materials.4. कौन सही है: (a) सभी जीवों की कोशिकाओं में केंद्रक होता है। (b) प्राणी और पादप दोनों कोशिकाओं में स्पष्ट कोशिका भित्ति होती है। (c) प्रोकैरियोट में झिल्लीबद्ध अंगक नहीं होते। (d) कोशिकाएँ अजैविक पदार्थों से नए सिरे से बनती हैं।4. Kaun sahi hai?
5. What is a mesosome in a prokaryotic cell? Mention the functions that it performs.5. प्रोकैरियोटिक कोशिका में मीज़ोसोम क्या है? इसके कार्य बताइए।5. Mesosome kya hai, kaam?
6. How do neutral solutes move across the plasma membrane? Can the polar molecules also move across it in the same way? If not, then how are these transported across the membrane?6. उदासीन विलेय जीवद्रव्य झिल्ली से कैसे गुज़रते हैं? क्या ध्रुवीय अणु भी इसी तरह गुज़र सकते हैं? यदि नहीं, तो उनका परिवहन कैसे होता है?6. Neutral aur polar molecules membrane se kaise?
7. Name two cell-organelles that are double membrane bound. What are the characteristics of these two organelles? State their functions and draw labelled diagrams of both.7. दोहरी झिल्ली वाले दो कोशिकांगों के नाम बताइए। इनकी विशेषताएँ और कार्य बताइए तथा दोनों के नामांकित चित्र बनाइए।7. Do double-membrane organelles?
8. What are the characteristics of prokaryotic cells?8. प्रोकैरियोटिक कोशिकाओं के लक्षण क्या हैं?8. Prokaryotic cell ke lakshan?
9. Multicellular organisms have division of labour. Explain.9. बहुकोशिक जीवों में श्रम विभाजन होता है। समझाइए।9. Division of labour samjhao.
10. Cell is the basic unit of life. Discuss in brief.10. कोशिका जीवन की मूल इकाई है। संक्षेप में चर्चा कीजिए।10. Cell basic unit of life.
11. What are nuclear pores? State their function.11. केंद्रक छिद्र क्या हैं? इनका कार्य बताइए।11. Nuclear pores?
12. Both lysosomes and vacuoles are endomembrane structures, yet they differ in terms of their functions. Comment.12. लयनकाय और रिक्तिका दोनों अंतःझिल्ली रचनाएँ हैं, फिर भी कार्य में भिन्न हैं। टिप्पणी कीजिए।12. Lysosome vs vacuole.
13. Describe the structure of the following with the help of labelled diagrams: (i) Nucleus (ii) Centrosome13. नामांकित चित्रों की सहायता से संरचना बताइए: (i) केंद्रक (ii) तारककाय13. Nucleus aur centrosome ki structure.
14. What is a centromere? How does the position of centromere form the basis of classification of chromosomes? Support your answer with a diagram showing the position of centromere on different types of chromosomes.14. गुणसूत्रबिंदु क्या है? गुणसूत्रबिंदु की स्थिति गुणसूत्रों के वर्गीकरण का आधार कैसे है? विभिन्न प्रकार के गुणसूत्रों पर इसकी स्थिति का चित्र दीजिए।14. Centromere aur chromosome types.
🎯 Quiz — 13 questions🎯 क्विज़ — 13 प्रश्न🎯 Quiz — 13 questions
Tap an option. The answer and a short reason appear at once.किसी विकल्प पर टैप करें। उत्तर और छोटा कारण तुरंत दिखेगा।Kisi option par tap kijiye. Answer aur chhota reason turant dikhega.
1. Who first saw and described a live cell?जीवित कोशिका को सबसे पहले किसने देखा व वर्णन किया?Live cell pehle kisne dekha?
2. “Omnis cellula-e cellula” was given by …“ओमनिस सेलुला-ई सेलुला” किसने दिया?Omnis cellula kisne?
3. The fluid mosaic model of the membrane was proposed by …झिल्ली का तरल किर्मीर मॉडल किसने दिया?Fluid mosaic kisne?
4. Which is NOT part of the endomembrane system?कौन अंतःझिल्ली तंत्र का भाग नहीं है?Endomembrane mein nahi?
5. Infoldings of the inner mitochondrial membrane are …सूत्रकणिका की भीतरी झिल्ली के अंतर्वलन …Inner mito folds?
6. Eukaryotic ribosomes are …यूकैरियोटिक राइबोसोम …Eukaryote ribosome?
7. Glycoproteins and glycolipids are formed mainly in the …ग्लाइकोप्रोटीन व ग्लाइकोलिपिड मुख्यतः कहाँ बनते हैं?Glycoproteins kahan?
8. Cross-section of a cilium shows …पक्ष्माभ की अनुप्रस्थ काट में …Cilium axoneme?
9. A chromosome with the centromere at the very end is …सिरे पर गुणसूत्रबिंदु वाला गुणसूत्र …Centromere end par?
10. Mesosomes are found in …मीज़ोसोम कहाँ मिलते हैं?Mesosome kahan?
11. The membrane around the plant vacuole is the …पादप रिक्तिका की झिल्ली …Vacuole membrane?
12. Middle lamella is made mainly of …मध्य पटलिका मुख्यतः किसकी बनी है?Middle lamella?
13. Plastids containing stored starch are …मंड संग्रह करने वाले लवक …Starch store?
Found a mistake?कोई गलती दिखी?Koi galti dikhi? Report a mistakeगलती बताइएGalti bataiye — we fix confirmed errors quickly.— पक्की गलतियाँ हम जल्दी ठीक करते हैं।— confirm galtiyan hum jaldi theek karte hain.
These are Simple Learning Hub's own study notes written to follow the NCERT Class 11 Biology textbook (2026-27 reprint of the rationalised edition) section by section; read them with the official NCERT chapter. Diagrams are original SLH drawings based on the NCERT figures they name.ये Simple Learning Hub के अपने स्टडी नोट्स हैं, जो NCERT कक्षा 11 जीव विज्ञान की किताब (2026-27) के हर अनुभाग के साथ लिखे गए हैं; इन्हें NCERT के आधिकारिक अध्याय के साथ पढ़िए। डायग्राम SLH के अपने बनाए चित्र हैं।Ye Simple Learning Hub ke apne study notes hain, jo NCERT Class 11 Biology ki kitaab (2026-27) ke har section ke saath likhe gaye hain; inhe NCERT ke official chapter ke saath padhiye. Diagrams SLH ki apni drawings hain.