Ch 12Respiration in Plantsपादप में श्वसनRespiration in Plants
Do plants breathe, glycolysis, fermentation, aerobic respiration (Krebs’ cycle, ETS, oxidative phosphorylation), respiratory balance sheet, amphibolic pathway and respiratory quotient — with tappable diagrams.क्या पादप साँस लेते हैं, ग्लाइकोलिसिस, किण्वन, वायवीय श्वसन (क्रेब्स चक्र, ETS, ऑक्सीकरणी फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन), श्वसन संतुलन चार्ट, उभयचयी पथ और श्वसन गुणांक — टैप करने वाले चित्रों के साथ।Plants saans lete hain?, glycolysis, fermentation, aerobic respiration (Krebs, ETS, oxidative phosphorylation), balance sheet, amphibolic pathway, RQ — tap wale diagrams ke saath.
Didn’t understand a paragraph? Tap it (or its Explain button) → Hindi / Hinglish / Simple English.कोई पैराग्राफ़ समझ नहीं आया? उस पर (या समझें बटन पर) टैप करें → अंग्रेज़ी / हिंग्लिश।Koi paragraph samajh nahi aaya? Us par (ya Samjho button par) tap kijiye → Hindi / English.
Diagrams in this chapterइस अध्याय के डायग्रामIs chapter ke diagrams
▶ Animate: electron transport and ATP synthesis▶ एनिमेट: इलेक्ट्रॉन परिवहन और ATP संश्लेषण▶ Animate: electron transport aur ATP synthesisAnimated
▶ Animate: one turn of Krebs’ cycle▶ एनिमेट: क्रेब्स चक्र का एक चक्कर▶ Animate: Krebs cycle ka ek chakkarAnimated
Steps of glycolysis (EMP pathway)ग्लाइकोलिसिस के चरण (EMP पथ)Steps of glycolysis (EMP pathway)Fig 12.1
Major pathways of anaerobic and aerobic respirationअवायवीय और वायवीय श्वसन के मुख्य पथMajor pathways of anaerobic and aerobic respirationFig 12.2
The citric acid (Krebs’) cycleसिट्रिक अम्ल (क्रेब्स) चक्रThe citric acid (Krebs’) cycleFig 12.3
Electron transport system and ATP synthesisइलेक्ट्रॉन परिवहन तंत्र और ATP संश्लेषणElectron transport system and ATP synthesisFigs 12.4, 12.5In this chapter (NCERT sections)इस अध्याय में (NCERT खंड)Is chapter mein (NCERT sections)
- 12.1Do plants breathe?क्या पादप साँस लेते हैं?Kya plants saans lete hain?
- 12.2Glycolysisग्लाइकोलिसिसGlycolysis
- 12.3Fermentationकिण्वनFermentation
- 12.4Aerobic respirationवायवीय श्वसनAerobic respiration
- 12.5The respiratory balance sheetश्वसन संतुलन चार्टRespiratory balance sheet
- 12.6Amphibolic pathwayउभयचयी पथAmphibolic pathway
- 12.7Respiratory quotientश्वसन गुणांकRespiratory quotient (RQ)
- ★Yaad rakho — quick revisionयाद रखो — झटपट दोहरावYaad rakho — quick revision
- ⚠Common mistakesआम गलतियाँCommon mistakes
- ✎NCERT questions — short answersNCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तरNCERT questions — short answers
- 🎯Quizक्विज़Quiz
All living organisms need energy for absorption, transport, movement, reproduction and even breathing. This energy comes from oxidation of food — the breaking of C–C bonds of complex compounds inside cells is cellular respiration. The compounds oxidised are respiratory substrates — usually carbohydrates, but proteins, fats and even organic acids can be used in some plants under certain conditions. Energy is not released all at once: it is released in steps and trapped as ATP, the energy currency of the cell; the carbon skeletons formed are used to build other molecules.सभी जीवों को अवशोषण, परिवहन, गति, जनन और साँस लेने तक के लिए ऊर्जा चाहिए। यह भोजन के ऑक्सीकरण से आती है — कोशिका में जटिल यौगिकों के C–C बंधों का टूटना कोशिकीय श्वसन है। ऑक्सीकृत यौगिक श्वसन क्रियाधार हैं — प्रायः कार्बोहाइड्रेट, पर कुछ पादपों में विशेष परिस्थितियों में प्रोटीन, वसा और कार्बनिक अम्ल भी। ऊर्जा एक साथ नहीं, चरणों में मुक्त होकर ATP (कोशिका की ऊर्जा मुद्रा) में संचित होती; बने कार्बन ढाँचे दूसरे अणु बनाने में उपयोग होते हैं।Energy = food ka oxidation = cellular respiration. Respiratory substrates — mostly carbohydrates (kabhi proteins, fats, organic acids). Energy steps mein → ATP (energy currency).All living things need energy — to take in food, carry substances, move, reproduce and even breathe. This energy comes from the oxidation of food. Inside cells, the C–C bonds of complex compounds are broken to release energy. This is called cellular respiration. The compounds that are oxidised are called respiratory substrates. They are usually carbohydrates, but some plants can also use proteins, fats and even organic acids in certain conditions. The energy is not released all at once. It is released in small steps and stored as ATP, which is the energy currency of the cell. The carbon skeletons left behind are used to build other molecules.
12.1Do plants breathe?क्या पादप साँस लेते हैं?Kya plants saans lete hain?
Yes — plants need O₂ for respiration and give out CO₂, but they have no specialised organs for gas exchange; stomata and lenticels do this. Reasons it works: (1) each plant part takes care of its own gas-exchange needs, with very little transport of gases between parts; (2) plants do not have great demands — roots, stems and leaves respire far more slowly than animals; only during photosynthesis are large volumes exchanged, and then O₂ is released within the cell; (3) distances gases must diffuse are short — in a large plant most living cells are near the surface (inner cells of stems are dead and give mechanical support), and loose packing of parenchyma provides an interconnected network of air spaces.हाँ — पादपों को श्वसन के लिए O₂ चाहिए और वे CO₂ छोड़ते हैं, पर गैस विनिमय के लिए कोई विशेष अंग नहीं; यह रंध्र और वातरंध्र करते हैं। कारण: (1) हर भाग अपनी गैस आवश्यकता स्वयं पूरी करता, भागों के बीच गैसों का परिवहन बहुत कम; (2) माँग कम — जड़, तना, पत्ती प्राणियों से बहुत धीमे श्वसन करते; केवल प्रकाश-संश्लेषण में बड़ी मात्रा का विनिमय, और तब O₂ कोशिका में ही मिलती; (3) विसरण की दूरी कम — बड़े पादप में अधिकतर जीवित कोशिकाएँ सतह के पास (तने की भीतरी कोशिकाएँ मृत, यांत्रिक सहारा), और मृदूतक की ढीली व्यवस्था वायु अवकाशों का जाल बनाती है।Haan — O₂ lete, CO₂ chhodte, par koi special organ nahi; stomata, lenticels. Har hissa apna kaam khud, demand kam, distance chhoti, parenchyma mein air spaces.Yes — plants also need O₂ for respiration and give out CO₂. But they have no special organs for gas exchange; stomata and lenticels (small pores on stems) do this job. This works for three reasons: (1) each part of the plant looks after its own gas needs, so very little gas is carried from one part to another; (2) plants do not need much — roots, stems and leaves respire much more slowly than animals. Only in photosynthesis are large amounts of gas exchanged, and then the O₂ is made inside the cell itself; (3) gases do not have to travel far. In a big plant, most living cells are close to the surface (the inner cells of stems are dead and only give support). Also, the loose packing of parenchyma cells makes a connected network of air spaces.
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12.2Glycolysisग्लाइकोलिसिसGlycolysis
The term comes from Greek glycos (sugar) and lysis (splitting). The scheme was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof and J. Parnas — the EMP pathway. In anaerobic organisms it is the only process of respiration. It occurs in the cytoplasm of all living organisms: glucose undergoes partial oxidation to two molecules of pyruvic acid. In plants glucose comes from sucrose (end product of photosynthesis) or storage carbohydrates; sucrose is split by invertase into glucose and fructose, which enter the pathway. Glucose and fructose are phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase; this isomerises to fructose-6-phosphate. The steps are catalysed by ten enzymes.शब्द यूनानी ग्लाइकोस (शर्करा) और लाइसिस (विखंडन) से। योजना गुस्टव एम्बडेन, ओटो मेयरहॉफ़ और जे. पारनास ने दी — EMP पथ। अवायवीय जीवों में यह श्वसन की एकमात्र प्रक्रिया है। यह सभी जीवों के कोशिकाद्रव्य में होता: ग्लूकोज़ का आंशिक ऑक्सीकरण होकर पाइरुविक अम्ल के दो अणु। पादपों में ग्लूकोज़ सुक्रोज़ (प्रकाश-संश्लेषण का अंतिम उत्पाद) या संचित कार्बोहाइड्रेट से; सुक्रोज़ इनवर्टेज़ से ग्लूकोज़ व फ़्रक्टोज़ में टूटता। ये हेक्सोकाइनेज़ से ग्लूकोज़-6-फ़ॉस्फ़ेट में, जो समावयवित होकर फ़्रक्टोज़-6-फ़ॉस्फ़ेट बनता। चरण दस एंजाइमों से उत्प्रेरित।Glycos = sugar, lysis = todna. EMP pathway (Embden, Meyerhof, Parnas). Anaerobes mein sirf yahi. Cytoplasm mein glucose → 2 pyruvic acid. Sucrose → (invertase) glucose + fructose → (hexokinase) G-6-P → F-6-P.The word glycolysis comes from Greek: glycos means sugar and lysis means splitting. Its scheme was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof and J. Parnas, so it is called the EMP pathway. In anaerobic organisms (those that live without oxygen), it is the only way of respiration. It happens in the cytoplasm of all living things. Glucose is partly oxidised into two molecules of pyruvic acid. In plants, glucose comes from sucrose (the end product of photosynthesis) or from stored carbohydrates. The enzyme invertase splits sucrose into glucose and fructose, which enter the pathway. Glucose and fructose are phosphorylated (a phosphate is added) to glucose-6-phosphate by the enzyme hexokinase. This then changes its form (isomerises) into fructose-6-phosphate. All the steps are run by ten enzymes.
Key energy steps: ATP is utilised at two steps — glucose → glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate → fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate splits into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL). When PGAL → 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPGA), NADH + H⁺ is formed from NAD⁺ (two redox equivalents removed). BPGA → 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) is an energy-yielding step trapped as ATP; another ATP forms when PEP → pyruvic acid. Per glucose: 2 ATP used, 4 ATP made directly, net 2 ATP, plus 2 NADH. ATP used, NADH, ATP made.मुख्य ऊर्जा चरण: दो चरणों में ATP उपयोग — ग्लूकोज़ → ग्लूकोज़-6-फ़ॉस्फ़ेट और फ़्रक्टोज़-6-फ़ॉस्फ़ेट → फ़्रक्टोज़-1,6-बिसफ़ॉस्फ़ेट। यह डाइहाइड्रॉक्सीऐसीटोन फ़ॉस्फ़ेट और 3-फ़ॉस्फ़ोग्लिसरैल्डिहाइड (PGAL) में टूटता। PGAL → 1,3-बिसफ़ॉस्फ़ोग्लिसरेट (BPGA) पर NAD⁺ से NADH + H⁺। BPGA → 3-फ़ॉस्फ़ोग्लिसरिक अम्ल (PGA) ऊर्जा देने वाला चरण — ATP; PEP → पाइरुविक अम्ल पर एक और ATP। प्रति ग्लूकोज़: 2 ATP उपयोग, 4 ATP सीधे बने, शुद्ध 2 ATP, साथ में 2 NADH। ATP उपयोग, NADH, ATP निर्माण।2 ATP kharch (G → G-6-P, F-6-P → F-1,6-bisP). PGAL → BPGA = NADH. BPGA → PGA aur PEP → pyruvate = ATP. Net 2 ATP + 2 NADH. ATP used, NADH, ATP made.Important energy steps: ATP is used at two steps — glucose → glucose-6-phosphate, and fructose-6-phosphate → fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate then splits into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL). When PGAL → 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPGA), NAD⁺ takes two redox equivalents (hydrogens) and becomes NADH + H⁺. When BPGA → 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA), energy is released and stored as ATP. One more ATP is made when PEP → pyruvic acid. For each glucose: 2 ATP are used, 4 ATP are made directly, so the net gain is 2 ATP, plus 2 NADH. 👉 ATP used 👉 ATP made
Pyruvic acid is the key product of glycolysis. Its fate depends on cellular need, with three major ways: lactic acid fermentation, alcoholic fermentation and aerobic respiration. Fermentation occurs under anaerobic conditions in many prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes; for complete oxidation of glucose to CO₂ and H₂O, organisms use the Krebs’ cycle — aerobic respiration, which needs O₂. Pyruvic acid.पाइरुविक अम्ल ग्लाइकोलिसिस का मुख्य उत्पाद। इसका भाग्य कोशिका की आवश्यकता पर, तीन मुख्य मार्ग: लैक्टिक अम्ल किण्वन, ऐल्कोहॉलिक किण्वन और वायवीय श्वसन। किण्वन अनेक प्रोकैरियोट और एककोशिक यूकैरियोट में अवायवीय परिस्थिति में; ग्लूकोज़ के CO₂ व H₂O तक पूर्ण ऑक्सीकरण हेतु क्रेब्स चक्र — वायवीय श्वसन, जिसे O₂ चाहिए। पाइरुविक अम्ल।Pyruvate ke 3 raaste: lactic acid, alcoholic fermentation (anaerobic), ya aerobic (Krebs, O₂ chahiye). Pyruvic acid.Pyruvic acid is the main product of glycolysis. What happens to it next depends on what the cell needs. There are three main paths: lactic acid fermentation, alcoholic fermentation and aerobic respiration. Fermentation happens without oxygen (anaerobic conditions) in many prokaryotes and one-celled eukaryotes. To fully oxidise glucose into CO₂ and H₂O, organisms use the Krebs’ cycle. This is aerobic respiration, and it needs O₂.
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12.3Fermentationकिण्वनFermentation
In yeast, glucose is incompletely oxidised under anaerobic conditions: pyruvic acid → CO₂ + ethanol, catalysed by pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase. Some bacteria make lactic acid from pyruvic acid. In animal muscle cells during exercise, when O₂ is inadequate, pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid by lactate dehydrogenase. The reducing agent is NADH + H⁺, reoxidised to NAD⁺ in both processes. Facts: (1) less than 7% of the energy in glucose is released, and not all of it is trapped as ATP; (2) the products (acid or alcohol) are hazardous; (3) net gain is only 2 ATP per glucose to pyruvic acid; (4) yeasts poison themselves to death when alcohol reaches about 13%.यीस्ट में अवायवीय दशा में ग्लूकोज़ का अपूर्ण ऑक्सीकरण: पाइरुविक अम्ल → CO₂ + एथेनॉल, पाइरुविक अम्ल डीकार्बोक्सिलेज़ और ऐल्कोहॉल डीहाइड्रोजिनेज़ द्वारा। कुछ जीवाणु पाइरुविक अम्ल से लैक्टिक अम्ल बनाते। व्यायाम में O₂ की कमी पर प्राणी पेशी कोशिकाओं में पाइरुविक अम्ल लैक्टेट डीहाइड्रोजिनेज़ से लैक्टिक अम्ल में अपचयित। अपचायक NADH + H⁺, दोनों में NAD⁺ में पुनः ऑक्सीकृत। तथ्य: (1) ग्लूकोज़ की ऊर्जा का 7% से कम मुक्त, वह भी पूरा ATP में नहीं; (2) उत्पाद (अम्ल या ऐल्कोहॉल) हानिकारक; (3) प्रति ग्लूकोज़ केवल 2 ATP शुद्ध लाभ; (4) ऐल्कोहॉल लगभग 13% होने पर यीस्ट स्वयं मर जाता है।Yeast: pyruvate → ethanol + CO₂ (pyruvic acid decarboxylase, alcohol dehydrogenase). Muscle (kam O₂): → lactic acid (lactate dehydrogenase). NADH → NAD⁺. <7% energy, products harmful, net 2 ATP, yeast ~13% alcohol par mar jaata.In yeast, without oxygen, glucose is not fully oxidised. Pyruvic acid becomes CO₂ + ethanol (alcohol). The enzymes are pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase. Some bacteria make lactic acid from pyruvic acid. In animal muscle cells during exercise, when there is not enough O₂, pyruvic acid is changed into lactic acid by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. In both processes, NADH + H⁺ gives the hydrogen and becomes NAD⁺ again. Facts: (1) less than 7% of the energy in glucose is released, and not all of it is stored as ATP; (2) the products (acid or alcohol) are harmful; (3) the net gain is only 2 ATP per glucose (glucose to pyruvic acid); (4) yeasts poison themselves to death when the alcohol reaches about 13%.
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12.4Aerobic respirationवायवीय श्वसनAerobic respiration
For aerobic respiration pyruvate is transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. The crucial events: (1) complete oxidation of pyruvate by stepwise removal of all hydrogen atoms, leaving three molecules of CO₂ — in the matrix; (2) passing the electrons removed as hydrogen atoms to O₂ with simultaneous synthesis of ATP — on the inner mitochondrial membrane. In the matrix, pyruvate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by pyruvic dehydrogenase (needs NAD⁺, coenzyme A and Mg²⁺): Pyruvic acid + CoA + NAD⁺ → Acetyl CoA + CO₂ + NADH + H⁺. So 2 NADH are produced from the two pyruvates of one glucose. Acetyl CoA then enters the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, also called the Krebs’ cycle after Hans Krebs. 3D mitochondrion3D.वायवीय श्वसन हेतु पाइरुवेट कोशिकाद्रव्य से सूत्रकणिका में जाता। मुख्य घटनाएँ: (1) सभी हाइड्रोजन परमाणुओं को क्रमशः हटाकर पाइरुवेट का पूर्ण ऑक्सीकरण, CO₂ के तीन अणु शेष — आधात्री में; (2) हाइड्रोजन के रूप में हटाए इलेक्ट्रॉनों को O₂ तक पहुँचाना और साथ में ATP संश्लेषण — सूत्रकणिका की भीतरी झिल्ली पर। आधात्री में पाइरुवेट का पाइरुविक डीहाइड्रोजिनेज़ (NAD⁺, सहएंजाइम A, Mg²⁺ आवश्यक) द्वारा ऑक्सीकरणी विकार्बोक्सिलीकरण: पाइरुविक अम्ल + CoA + NAD⁺ → ऐसीटिल CoA + CO₂ + NADH + H⁺। एक ग्लूकोज़ के दो पाइरुवेट से 2 NADH। ऐसीटिल CoA फिर ट्राइकार्बोक्सिलिक अम्ल (TCA) चक्र में, जिसे हैंस क्रेब्स के नाम पर क्रेब्स चक्र भी कहते। 3D सूत्रकणिका3D।Pyruvate → mitochondria. Matrix mein poora oxidation (CO₂), inner membrane par electrons → O₂ + ATP. Pyruvic acid + CoA + NAD⁺ → Acetyl CoA + CO₂ + NADH (pyruvic dehydrogenase, Mg²⁺). Phir Krebs/TCA cycle (Hans Krebs). 3D mitochondrion3D.For aerobic respiration, pyruvate is carried from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. Two main things happen there: (1) pyruvate is fully oxidised — all its hydrogen atoms are removed step by step, leaving three molecules of CO₂. This happens in the matrix; (2) the electrons removed with the hydrogen atoms are passed to O₂, and at the same time ATP is made. This happens on the inner mitochondrial membrane. In the matrix, pyruvate goes through oxidative decarboxylation (oxidation plus removal of CO₂) by the enzyme pyruvic dehydrogenase. It needs NAD⁺, coenzyme A and Mg²⁺: Pyruvic acid + CoA + NAD⁺ → Acetyl CoA + CO₂ + NADH + H⁺. One glucose gives two pyruvates, so 2 NADH are made here. Acetyl CoA then enters the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. It is also called the Krebs’ cycle, after Hans Krebs. 3D mitochondrion3D.
12.4.1Tricarboxylic acid cycleट्राइकार्बोक्सिलिक अम्ल चक्रTCA cycle
The TCA cycle starts with condensation of the acetyl group with oxaloacetic acid (OAA) and water to give citric acid, catalysed by citrate synthase, releasing CoA. Citrate isomerises to isocitrate, followed by two successive decarboxylations forming α-ketoglutaric acid and then succinyl-CoA; succinyl-CoA is oxidised to OAA in the remaining steps, letting the cycle continue. During conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinic acid one GTP is made (substrate-level phosphorylation); in a coupled reaction GTP → GDP with ADP → ATP. There are three points where NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH + H⁺ and one point where FAD⁺ is reduced to FADH₂. The cycle needs continued replenishment of OAA and regeneration of NAD⁺ and FAD⁺. Citric acid, OAA.TCA चक्र ऐसीटिल समूह के ऑक्सैलोऐसीटिक अम्ल (OAA) और जल से संघनन द्वारा सिट्रिक अम्ल बनने से शुरू, सिट्रेट सिंथेज़ द्वारा, CoA मुक्त। सिट्रेट आइसोसिट्रेट में समावयवित, फिर दो क्रमिक विकार्बोक्सिलीकरण से α-कीटोग्लूटैरिक अम्ल और फिर सक्सिनिल-CoA; शेष चरणों में सक्सिनिल-CoA ऑक्सीकृत होकर OAA, चक्र चलता रहता। सक्सिनिल-CoA → सक्सिनिक अम्ल पर एक GTP (क्रियाधार स्तर फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन); युग्मित अभिक्रिया में GTP → GDP के साथ ADP → ATP। तीन स्थलों पर NAD⁺ → NADH + H⁺ और एक स्थल पर FAD⁺ → FADH₂। चक्र के लिए OAA की निरंतर पूर्ति और NAD⁺ व FAD⁺ का पुनर्जनन आवश्यक। सिट्रिक अम्ल, OAA।Acetyl + OAA + H₂O → citric acid (citrate synthase) → isocitrate → 2 decarboxylation → α-KG → succinyl-CoA → succinic (GTP) → … → OAA. 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂ per round. Citric acid, OAA.The TCA cycle starts when the acetyl group joins with oxaloacetic acid (OAA) and water to make Citric acid. The enzyme is citrate synthase, and CoA is released. Citrate changes into isocitrate. Then CO₂ is removed two times, one after the other, giving α-ketoglutaric acid and then succinyl-CoA. In the remaining steps, succinyl-CoA is oxidised back to OAA, so the cycle can go on. When succinyl-CoA changes to succinic acid, one GTP is made (substrate-level phosphorylation). In a linked reaction, GTP becomes GDP and ADP becomes ATP. There are three points where NAD⁺ becomes NADH + H⁺, and one point where FAD⁺ becomes FADH₂. For the cycle to continue, OAA must keep being supplied, and NAD⁺ and FAD⁺ must be made again.
12.4.2Electron transport system (ETS) and oxidative phosphorylationइलेक्ट्रॉन परिवहन तंत्र (ETS) और ऑक्सीकरणी फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशनETS aur oxidative phosphorylation
The energy stored in NADH + H⁺ and FADH₂ is released when they are oxidised through the electron transport system in the inner mitochondrial membrane, with electrons passed on to O₂ to form H₂O. Electrons from NADH (in the matrix) are oxidised by NADH dehydrogenase (complex I) and passed to ubiquinone in the inner membrane; ubiquinone also receives reducing equivalents from FADH₂ (complex II) from succinate oxidation. Reduced ubiquinone (ubiquinol) is oxidised, transferring electrons to cytochrome c via the cytochrome bc₁ complex (complex III); cytochrome c is a small protein on the outer surface of the inner membrane and acts as a mobile carrier between complex III and IV. Complex IV is cytochrome c oxidase (cytochromes a and a₃, and two copper centres). As electrons pass from complex I to IV, the transfer is coupled to ATP synthase (complex V). Oxidation of one NADH gives 3 ATP; one FADH₂ gives 2 ATP. Oxygen is the final hydrogen acceptor; its role is limited to the terminal stage, but it is vital because it drives the whole process by removing hydrogen from the system. Complex I, cytochrome c, O₂.NADH + H⁺ और FADH₂ में संचित ऊर्जा तब मुक्त होती जब वे सूत्रकणिका की भीतरी झिल्ली के इलेक्ट्रॉन परिवहन तंत्र से ऑक्सीकृत होते और इलेक्ट्रॉन O₂ को देकर H₂O बनता। आधात्री के NADH के इलेक्ट्रॉन NADH डीहाइड्रोजिनेज़ (सम्मिश्र I) से ऑक्सीकृत होकर भीतरी झिल्ली के यूबिक्विनोन को; यूबिक्विनोन सक्सिनेट ऑक्सीकरण के FADH₂ (सम्मिश्र II) से भी लेता। अपचयित यूबिक्विनोन (यूबिक्विनॉल) साइटोक्रोम bc₁ सम्मिश्र (सम्मिश्र III) द्वारा साइटोक्रोम c को इलेक्ट्रॉन देता; साइटोक्रोम c भीतरी झिल्ली की बाहरी सतह का छोटा प्रोटीन, सम्मिश्र III और IV के बीच गतिशील वाहक। सम्मिश्र IV = साइटोक्रोम c ऑक्सीडेज़ (साइटोक्रोम a व a₃, दो ताँबा केंद्र)। I से IV तक इलेक्ट्रॉन प्रवाह ATP सिंथेज़ (सम्मिश्र V) से युग्मित। एक NADH से 3 ATP, एक FADH₂ से 2 ATP। ऑक्सीजन अंतिम हाइड्रोजन ग्राही; इसकी भूमिका अंतिम चरण में, पर यह तंत्र से हाइड्रोजन हटाकर पूरी प्रक्रिया चलाती है। सम्मिश्र I, साइटोक्रोम c, O₂।NADH/FADH₂ ki energy inner membrane ke ETS mein: I (NADH dehydrogenase) → ubiquinone (← II, FADH₂) → III (cyt bc₁) → cyt c (mobile) → IV (cyt c oxidase, a, a₃, 2 Cu) → O₂ → H₂O. NADH = 3 ATP, FADH₂ = 2 ATP. O₂ = last acceptor, poora process chalata. Complex I, cyt c, O₂.The energy stored in NADH + H⁺ and FADH₂ is released when they are oxidised in the electron transport system (ETS). The ETS is in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The electrons are finally passed to O₂, which forms H₂O. Step by step: electrons from NADH (in the matrix) are taken by NADH dehydrogenase (Complex I) and passed to ubiquinone in the inner membrane. Ubiquinone also gets electrons from FADH₂ (complex II), made when succinate is oxidised. Reduced ubiquinone (ubiquinol) passes electrons to cytochrome c through the cytochrome bc₁ complex (complex III). Cytochrome c is a small protein on the outer surface of the inner membrane. It works as a mobile carrier between complex III and IV. Complex IV is cytochrome c oxidase; it has cytochromes a and a₃ and two copper centres. As electrons pass from complex I to IV, this flow is linked to ATP synthase (complex V), which makes ATP. Oxidising one NADH gives 3 ATP; one FADH₂ gives 2 ATP. Oxygen is the final hydrogen acceptor. It acts only at the last step, but it is very important, because it keeps the whole process going by removing hydrogen from the system.
Unlike photophosphorylation, where light energy builds the proton gradient, here the energy of oxidation-reduction is used — hence oxidative phosphorylation. The energy released during electron transport makes ATP with the help of ATP synthase (complex V), which has two parts: F₁ — a peripheral headpiece containing the site of ATP synthesis from ADP + Pi; F₀ — an integral membrane protein complex forming the channel through which protons cross the inner membrane. Passage of protons through the channel is coupled to the catalytic site of F₁; for each ATP, 2 H⁺ pass through F₀ from the intermembrane space to the matrix down the electrochemical gradient. ATP synthase.प्रकाश फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन में प्रकाश ऊर्जा प्रोटॉन प्रवणता बनाती, यहाँ ऑक्सीकरण-अपचयन की ऊर्जा — इसलिए ऑक्सीकरणी फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन। इलेक्ट्रॉन परिवहन में मुक्त ऊर्जा ATP सिंथेज़ (सम्मिश्र V) से ATP बनाती, जिसके दो भाग: F₁ — परिधीय शीर्ष, ADP + Pi से ATP संश्लेषण का स्थल; F₀ — झिल्ली में धँसा प्रोटीन सम्मिश्र, चैनल जिससे प्रोटॉन भीतरी झिल्ली पार करते। चैनल से प्रोटॉन का गुजरना F₁ के उत्प्रेरक स्थल से युग्मित; प्रत्येक ATP हेतु 2 H⁺ अंतराझिल्ली अवकाश से आधात्री में F₀ से गुजरते। ATP सिंथेज़।Yahan redox energy se proton gradient → oxidative phosphorylation. Complex V: F₁ (ATP banata), F₀ (proton channel). 2 H⁺ → 1 ATP. ATP synthase.In photophosphorylation, light energy builds the proton gradient. Here, the energy comes from oxidation-reduction reactions, so it is called oxidative phosphorylation. The energy released during electron transport is used to make ATP by ATP synthase (complex V). It has two parts. F₁ is a head-piece on the membrane surface; it has the site where ATP is made from ADP + Pi. F₀ is a protein complex inside the membrane; it forms the channel through which protons cross the inner membrane. The flow of protons through this channel is linked to the ATP-making site of F₁. For each ATP made, 2 H⁺ pass through F₀, from the intermembrane space into the matrix, moving down the electrochemical gradient. 👉 ATP synthase
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12.5The respiratory balance sheetश्वसन संतुलन चार्टRespiratory balance sheet
The net gain of ATP from one glucose can be calculated only on certain assumptions: (1) a sequential, orderly pathway functions — glycolysis, TCA cycle and ETS one after another; (2) the NADH made in glycolysis is transferred into the mitochondria and undergoes oxidative phosphorylation; (3) none of the intermediates is used to synthesise any other compound; (4) only glucose is respired — no alternative substrates enter at any stage. These assumptions are not really valid in a living system — all pathways work simultaneously, substrates enter and leave as needed, ATP is used as needed, and enzymatic rates are controlled. On these assumptions there can be a net gain of 38 ATP per glucose in aerobic respiration.एक ग्लूकोज़ से ATP का शुद्ध लाभ कुछ मान्यताओं पर ही निकाला जा सकता: (1) क्रमबद्ध पथ — ग्लाइकोलिसिस, TCA चक्र और ETS एक के बाद एक; (2) ग्लाइकोलिसिस का NADH सूत्रकणिका में जाकर ऑक्सीकरणी फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन करता; (3) कोई मध्यवर्ती दूसरे यौगिक के संश्लेषण में उपयोग नहीं; (4) केवल ग्लूकोज़ का श्वसन — कोई अन्य क्रियाधार बीच में प्रवेश नहीं करता। जीवित तंत्र में ये मान्यताएँ वास्तव में सही नहीं — सभी पथ साथ-साथ चलते, क्रियाधार आवश्यकतानुसार आते-जाते, ATP आवश्यकता पर उपयोग होता, एंजाइमी दरें नियंत्रित। इन मान्यताओं पर वायवीय श्वसन में प्रति ग्लूकोज़ 38 ATP का शुद्ध लाभ हो सकता है।Assumptions: pathway kram se, glycolysis ka NADH mitochondria mein, koi intermediate doosre kaam mein nahi, sirf glucose. Asal mein sahi nahi. Inke saath net 38 ATP.We can work out the net ATP gain from one glucose only by making some assumptions: (1) the pathway works in a fixed order — glycolysis, then the TCA cycle, then the ETS; (2) the NADH made in glycolysis is moved into the mitochondria and goes through oxidative phosphorylation; (3) none of the middle compounds is used to make any other compound; (4) only glucose is used — no other substrate enters at any stage. In a real living system these assumptions are not true. All the pathways work at the same time, substrates enter and leave as needed, ATP is used as needed, and enzyme speeds are controlled. But if we accept these assumptions, there can be a net gain of 38 ATP per glucose in aerobic respiration.
| Fermentationकिण्वनFermentation | Aerobic respirationवायवीय श्वसनAerobic respiration |
|---|---|
| Partial breakdown of glucoseग्लूकोज़ का आंशिक विघटनPartial breakdown | Complete degradation to CO₂ + H₂OCO₂ + H₂O तक पूर्ण विघटनPoora CO₂ + H₂O |
| Net 2 ATP per glucoseप्रति ग्लूकोज़ शुद्ध 2 ATP2 ATP | Many more ATP (38 on assumptions)बहुत अधिक ATP (मान्यताओं पर 38)38 ATP |
| NADH oxidised to NAD⁺ rather slowlyNADH का NAD⁺ में ऑक्सीकरण धीमाNADH slow | NADH oxidation is vigorousNADH ऑक्सीकरण तीव्रNADH tez |
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12.6Amphibolic pathwayउभयचयी पथAmphibolic pathway
Glucose is the favoured substrate for respiration. Fats are first broken into glycerol and fatty acids; fatty acids are degraded to acetyl CoA and enter the pathway, while glycerol enters after conversion to PGAL. Proteins are degraded by proteases, and amino acids (after deamination) enter at some stage within the Krebs’ cycle or as pyruvate or acetyl CoA. Respiration is usually thought of as catabolic (breakdown), but when the organism needs to synthesise fatty acids, acetyl CoA is withdrawn from the pathway; likewise intermediates are withdrawn to make proteins. Since the pathway is involved in both breakdown (catabolism) and synthesis (anabolism), it is better considered an amphibolic pathway.श्वसन का प्रिय क्रियाधार ग्लूकोज़। वसा पहले ग्लिसरॉल और वसा अम्लों में टूटती; वसा अम्ल ऐसीटिल CoA बनकर पथ में, ग्लिसरॉल PGAL बनकर। प्रोटीन प्रोटिएज़ से टूटते और अमीनो अम्ल (विऐमीनीकरण के बाद) क्रेब्स चक्र के किसी चरण पर या पाइरुवेट/ऐसीटिल CoA के रूप में प्रवेश। श्वसन को प्रायः अपचयी माना जाता, पर जब जीव को वसा अम्ल बनाने हों तो ऐसीटिल CoA पथ से निकाला जाता; इसी प्रकार प्रोटीन संश्लेषण हेतु मध्यवर्ती निकाले जाते। चूँकि पथ विघटन (अपचय) और संश्लेषण (उपचय) दोनों में शामिल, इसे उभयचयी पथ कहना बेहतर है।Fats → glycerol (→ PGAL) + fatty acids (→ acetyl CoA). Proteins → amino acids (deamination) → Krebs/pyruvate/acetyl CoA. Same pathway se fatty acids, proteins bante bhi. Toh catabolism + anabolism = amphibolic.Glucose is the preferred substrate for respiration. Fats are first broken into glycerol and fatty acids. Fatty acids are broken down to acetyl CoA and enter the pathway. Glycerol enters after it is changed into PGAL. Proteins are broken down by proteases (protein-digesting enzymes). The amino acids, after deamination (removal of the amino group), enter at some stage of the Krebs’ cycle, or as pyruvate or acetyl CoA. We usually think of respiration as catabolic (breaking down). But when the organism needs to make fatty acids, acetyl CoA is taken out of the pathway. In the same way, middle compounds are taken out to make proteins. So the pathway is used for both breaking down (catabolism) and building up (anabolism). That is why it is better called an amphibolic pathway.
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12.7Respiratory quotientश्वसन गुणांकRespiratory quotient (RQ)
The ratio of the volume of CO₂ evolved to the volume of O₂ consumed in respiration is the respiratory quotient (RQ) or respiratory ratio: RQ = volume of CO₂ evolved / volume of O₂ consumed. It depends on the substrate. For carbohydrates, completely oxidised, RQ = 1 (C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O; 6CO₂/6O₂ = 1). For fats, RQ < 1 — e.g. tripalmitin: 2(C₅₁H₉₈O₆) + 145O₂ → 102CO₂ + 98H₂O; RQ = 102/145 = 0.7. For proteins, RQ is about 0.9. In living organisms respiratory substrates are often more than one; pure proteins or fats are never used as respiratory substrates.श्वसन में निकली CO₂ के आयतन और उपयोग हुई O₂ के आयतन का अनुपात श्वसन गुणांक (RQ): RQ = निकली CO₂ का आयतन / उपयोग हुई O₂ का आयतन। यह क्रियाधार पर निर्भर। कार्बोहाइड्रेट के पूर्ण ऑक्सीकरण में RQ = 1 (C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O)। वसा में RQ < 1 — जैसे ट्राइपामिटिन: 2(C₅₁H₉₈O₆) + 145O₂ → 102CO₂ + 98H₂O; RQ = 102/145 = 0.7। प्रोटीन में लगभग 0.9। जीवों में क्रियाधार प्रायः एक से अधिक; शुद्ध प्रोटीन या वसा कभी श्वसन क्रियाधार नहीं होते।RQ = CO₂ nikli / O₂ li. Carbohydrate 1, fat (tripalmitin 102/145) 0.7, protein ~0.9.The respiratory quotient (RQ), or respiratory ratio, is the ratio of the volume of CO₂ given out to the volume of O₂ used in respiration: RQ = volume of CO₂ evolved / volume of O₂ consumed. It depends on what substrate is used. For carbohydrates that are fully oxidised, RQ = 1 (C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O; 6CO₂/6O₂ = 1). For fats, RQ is less than 1. For example, for tripalmitin: 2(C₅₁H₉₈O₆) + 145O₂ → 102CO₂ + 98H₂O; RQ = 102/145 = 0.7. For proteins, RQ is about 0.9. In living things, more than one substrate is usually used at a time. Pure proteins or pure fats are never used alone.
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★ Yaad rakho — quick revision★ याद रखो — झटपट दोहराव★ Yaad rakho — quick revision
- Glycolysis (EMP) in cytoplasm: glucose → 2 pyruvate; net 2 ATP + 2 NADH.ग्लाइकोलिसिस (EMP) कोशिकाद्रव्य में: ग्लूकोज़ → 2 पाइरुवेट; शुद्ध 2 ATP + 2 NADH।Net 2 ATP + 2 NADH.
- ATP used at G → G-6-P and F-6-P → F-1,6-bisP; NADH at PGAL → BPGA; ATP made at BPGA → PGA and PEP → pyruvate.ATP उपयोग: G → G-6-P, F-6-P → F-1,6-बिसP; NADH: PGAL → BPGA; ATP निर्माण: BPGA → PGA, PEP → पाइरुवेट।Steps yaad.
- Yeast → ethanol + CO₂; muscle → lactic acid; fermentation < 7% energy; yeast dies at ~13% alcohol.यीस्ट → एथेनॉल + CO₂; पेशी → लैक्टिक अम्ल; किण्वन < 7% ऊर्जा; ~13% ऐल्कोहॉल पर यीस्ट मृत।13% alcohol.
- Link reaction (matrix): pyruvate + CoA + NAD⁺ → acetyl CoA + CO₂ + NADH (pyruvic dehydrogenase, Mg²⁺).संयोजी अभिक्रिया (आधात्री): पाइरुवेट + CoA + NAD⁺ → ऐसीटिल CoA + CO₂ + NADH।Acetyl CoA.
- Krebs: acetyl CoA + OAA → citric acid (citrate synthase); per turn 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, 1 GTP, 2 CO₂.क्रेब्स: ऐसीटिल CoA + OAA → सिट्रिक अम्ल; प्रति चक्र 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, 1 GTP, 2 CO₂।3 NADH, 1 FADH₂.
- ETS: I → UQ (← II) → III → cyt c → IV → O₂; NADH = 3 ATP, FADH₂ = 2 ATP; complex V = F₀ + F₁.इलेक्ट्रॉन परिवहन तंत्र: सम्मिश्र I → यूबिक्विनोन (← II) → III → साइटोक्रोम c → IV → O₂; एक NADH से 3 ATP, एक FADH₂ से 2 ATP; सम्मिश्र V = F₀ + F₁।3 / 2 ATP.
- Net 38 ATP per glucose in aerobic respiration (on assumptions).वायवीय श्वसन में प्रति ग्लूकोज़ 38 ATP (मान्यताओं पर)।38 ATP.
- RQ = CO₂/O₂: carbohydrate 1, fat 0.7, protein 0.9. Respiration is amphibolic.RQ = CO₂/O₂: कार्बोहाइड्रेट 1, वसा 0.7, प्रोटीन 0.9। श्वसन उभयचयी।RQ 1 / 0.7 / 0.9.
⚠ Common mistakes⚠ आम गलतियाँ⚠ Common mistakes
- Saying glycolysis happens in mitochondria — it is in the cytoplasm; Krebs’ cycle in the matrix, ETS on the inner membrane.ग्लाइकोलिसिस को सूत्रकणिका में बताना — यह कोशिकाद्रव्य में; क्रेब्स आधात्री में, ETS भीतरी झिल्ली पर।Glycolysis cytoplasm.
- Writing net gain of glycolysis as 4 ATP — 4 are made but 2 are used, so net 2.ग्लाइकोलिसिस का शुद्ध लाभ 4 ATP लिखना — 4 बनते पर 2 उपयोग, शुद्ध 2।Net 2.
- Saying O₂ is used in the Krebs’ cycle — O₂ acts only at the end of the ETS (complex IV), yet without it the cycle stops.क्रेब्स चक्र में O₂ उपयोग बताना — O₂ केवल ETS के अंत (सम्मिश्र IV) में, फिर भी इसके बिना चक्र रुकता।O₂ sirf ETS end.
- Calling the RQ of fats more than 1 — fats need more O₂, so RQ < 1 (≈ 0.7).वसा का RQ 1 से अधिक कहना — वसा को अधिक O₂ चाहिए, RQ < 1 (≈ 0.7)।Fat RQ 0.7.
- Treating 38 ATP as exact in a living cell — it rests on assumptions that do not really hold.38 ATP को जीवित कोशिका में सटीक मानना — यह मान्यताओं पर आधारित है जो वास्तव में सही नहीं।38 = assumption.
✎ NCERT questions — short answers✎ NCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तर✎ NCERT questions — short answers
NCERT exercises (tap a question to see the answer)NCERT अभ्यास (उत्तर देखने के लिए प्रश्न पर टैप करें)NCERT exercises (answer dekhne ke liye question par tap kijiye)
1. Differentiate between (a) Respiration and Combustion (b) Glycolysis and Krebs’ cycle (c) Aerobic respiration and Fermentation1. अंतर बताइए: (a) श्वसन और दहन (b) ग्लाइकोलिसिस और क्रेब्स चक्र (c) वायवीय श्वसन और किण्वन1. Differences.
2. What are respiratory substrates? Name the most common respiratory substrate.2. श्वसन क्रियाधार क्या हैं? सबसे सामान्य श्वसन क्रियाधार बताइए।2. Respiratory substrate?
3. Give the schematic representation of glycolysis.3. ग्लाइकोलिसिस का रेखीय निरूपण दीजिए।3. Glycolysis scheme.
4. What are the main steps in aerobic respiration? Where does it take place?4. वायवीय श्वसन के मुख्य चरण क्या हैं? यह कहाँ होता है?4. Aerobic steps.
5. Give the schematic representation of an overall view of Krebs’ cycle.5. क्रेब्स चक्र का समग्र रेखीय निरूपण दीजिए।5. Krebs scheme.
6. Explain ETS.6. ETS समझाइए।6. ETS?
7. Distinguish between (a) Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respiration (b) Glycolysis and Fermentation (c) Glycolysis and Citric acid cycle7. अंतर बताइए: (a) वायवीय और अवायवीय श्वसन (b) ग्लाइकोलिसिस और किण्वन (c) ग्लाइकोलिसिस और सिट्रिक अम्ल चक्र7. Distinguish.
8. What are the assumptions made during the calculation of net gain of ATP?8. ATP के शुद्ध लाभ की गणना में कौन-सी मान्यताएँ ली जाती हैं?8. Assumptions.
9. Discuss “The respiratory pathway is an amphibolic pathway.”9. “श्वसन पथ एक उभयचयी पथ है” — विवेचना कीजिए।9. Amphibolic.
10. Define RQ. What is its value for fats?10. RQ परिभाषित कीजिए। वसा के लिए इसका मान क्या है?10. RQ, fats.
11. What is oxidative phosphorylation?11. ऑक्सीकरणी फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन क्या है?11. Oxidative phosphorylation?
12. What is the significance of step-wise release of energy in respiration?12. श्वसन में ऊर्जा के चरणबद्ध मोचन का क्या महत्व है?12. Step-wise release ka mahatva.
🎯 Quiz — 14 questions🎯 क्विज़ — 14 प्रश्न🎯 Quiz — 14 questions
Tap an option. The answer and a short reason appear at once.किसी विकल्प पर टैप करें। उत्तर और छोटा कारण तुरंत दिखेगा।Kisi option par tap kijiye. Answer aur chhota reason turant dikhega.
1. Glycolysis takes place in the …ग्लाइकोलिसिस कहाँ होता है?Glycolysis kahan?
2. EMP pathway is another name for …EMP पथ किसका दूसरा नाम है?EMP = ?
3. Net ATP gain in glycolysis per glucose is …प्रति ग्लूकोज़ ग्लाइकोलिसिस में शुद्ध ATP …Glycolysis net ATP?
4. Sucrose is split into glucose and fructose by …सुक्रोज़ को ग्लूकोज़ व फ़्रक्टोज़ में कौन तोड़ता है?Sucrose kaun todta?
5. In muscle cells short of O₂, pyruvic acid forms …O₂ की कमी में पेशी कोशिकाओं में पाइरुविक अम्ल से बनता …Muscle mein?
6. Yeasts poison themselves when alcohol reaches about …ऐल्कोहॉल लगभग … होने पर यीस्ट मर जाता है।Yeast kitne % par?
7. Pyruvate → acetyl CoA is catalysed by …पाइरुवेट → ऐसीटिल CoA किस एंजाइम से?Link enzyme?
8. The first product of the Krebs’ cycle is …क्रेब्स चक्र का पहला उत्पाद …Krebs first product?
9. Substrate-level GTP formation in the Krebs’ cycle occurs at …क्रेब्स चक्र में GTP कहाँ बनता है?GTP kahan?
10. Cytochrome c oxidase is …साइटोक्रोम c ऑक्सीडेज़ है …Cyt c oxidase?
11. The final acceptor of electrons in aerobic respiration is …वायवीय श्वसन में अंतिम इलेक्ट्रॉन ग्राही …Last acceptor?
12. Oxidation of one FADH₂ in the ETS yields …ETS में एक FADH₂ से …FADH₂ = ?
13. The part of ATP synthase forming the proton channel is …ATP सिंथेज़ का प्रोटॉन चैनल वाला भाग …Proton channel?
14. RQ of fats (tripalmitin) is about …वसा (ट्राइपामिटिन) का RQ लगभग …Fat RQ?
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These are Simple Learning Hub's own study notes written to follow the NCERT Class 11 Biology textbook (2026-27 reprint of the rationalised edition) section by section; read them with the official NCERT chapter. Diagrams are original SLH drawings based on the NCERT figures they name.ये Simple Learning Hub के अपने स्टडी नोट्स हैं, जो NCERT कक्षा 11 जीव विज्ञान की किताब (2026-27) के हर अनुभाग के साथ लिखे गए हैं; इन्हें NCERT के आधिकारिक अध्याय के साथ पढ़िए। डायग्राम SLH के अपने बनाए चित्र हैं।Ye Simple Learning Hub ke apne study notes hain, jo NCERT Class 11 Biology ki kitaab (2026-27) ke har section ke saath likhe gaye hain; inhe NCERT ke official chapter ke saath padhiye. Diagrams SLH ki apni drawings hain.