Ch 13Plant Growth and Developmentपादप वृद्धि एवं परिवर्धनPlant Growth and Development
Growth and its measurement, phases and rates of growth, differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation, development and plasticity, and the five plant growth regulators — with tappable diagrams.वृद्धि और उसका मापन, वृद्धि की प्रावस्थाएँ और दरें, विभेदन, निर्विभेदन व पुनर्विभेदन, परिवर्धन और सुघट्यता, तथा पाँच पादप वृद्धि नियामक — टैप करने वाले चित्रों के साथ।Growth aur uska measurement, phases, growth rates, differentiation/dedifferentiation/redifferentiation, development, plasticity aur 5 plant growth regulators — tap wale diagrams ke saath.
Didn’t understand a paragraph? Tap it (or its Explain button) → Hindi / Hinglish / Simple English.कोई पैराग्राफ़ समझ नहीं आया? उस पर (या समझें बटन पर) टैप करें → अंग्रेज़ी / हिंग्लिश।Koi paragraph samajh nahi aaya? Us par (ya Samjho button par) tap kijiye → Hindi / English.
Diagrams in this chapterइस अध्याय के डायग्रामIs chapter ke diagrams
▶ Animate: Darwins’ coleoptile experiment▶ एनिमेट: डार्विन का प्रांकुर-चोल प्रयोग▶ Animate: Darwin ka coleoptile experimentAnimated
▶ Animate: arithmetic vs geometric growth▶ एनिमेट: अंकगणितीय बनाम ज्यामितीय वृद्धि▶ Animate: arithmetic vs geometric growthAnimated
Zones of growth in a root tipमूल शीर्ष में वृद्धि के क्षेत्रZones of growth in a root tipFig 13.3
Arithmetic and geometric growthअंकगणितीय और ज्यामितीय वृद्धिArithmetic and geometric growthFigs 13.4, 13.5
Sigmoid (S-shaped) growth curveसिग्मॉइड (S-आकार) वृद्धि वक्रSigmoid (S-shaped) growth curveFig 13.6
Apical dominanceशीर्ष प्रभाविताApical dominanceFig 13.11In this chapter (NCERT sections)इस अध्याय में (NCERT खंड)Is chapter mein (NCERT sections)
- 13.1Growthवृद्धिGrowth
- 13.2Differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiationविभेदन, निर्विभेदन और पुनर्विभेदनDifferentiation, dedifferentiation, redifferentiation
- 13.3Developmentपरिवर्धनDevelopment
- 13.4Plant growth regulatorsपादप वृद्धि नियामकPlant growth regulators (PGRs)
- ★Yaad rakho — quick revisionयाद रखो — झटपट दोहरावYaad rakho — quick revision
- ⚠Common mistakesआम गलतियाँCommon mistakes
- ✎NCERT questions — short answersNCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तरNCERT questions — short answers
- 🎯Quizक्विज़Quiz
All plant structures — roots, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds — arise in an orderly sequence. A seed germinates into a seedling under favourable conditions; cells, tissues and organs form through growth and differentiation. Development is the sum of growth and differentiation, controlled by intrinsic (genetic, plant growth regulators) and extrinsic (light, temperature, water, oxygen, nutrition) factors.सभी पादप संरचनाएँ — जड़, पत्ती, फूल, फल, बीज — क्रमबद्ध रूप से बनती हैं। अनुकूल दशा में बीज अंकुरित होकर नवोद्भिद बनता; वृद्धि और विभेदन से कोशिकाएँ, ऊतक और अंग बनते। परिवर्धन वृद्धि और विभेदन का योग है, जो आंतरिक (आनुवंशिक, पादप वृद्धि नियामक) और बाह्य (प्रकाश, ताप, जल, ऑक्सीजन, पोषण) कारकों से नियंत्रित।Seed → seedling → plant. Growth + differentiation = development; control: internal (genes, PGRs) + external (light, temperature, water, O₂, nutrition).All parts of a plant — roots, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds — form in a fixed order. In good conditions, a seed germinates (sprouts) and becomes a seedling. Then cells, tissues and organs form through growth and differentiation. Development means growth plus differentiation together. It is controlled by intrinsic (inside) factors — genes and plant growth regulators — and extrinsic (outside) factors — light, temperature, water, oxygen and nutrition.
13.1Growthवृद्धिGrowth
Growth is the most fundamental characteristic of living beings: an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ, its parts or even an individual cell, generally accompanied by metabolic processes (anabolic and catabolic) that occur at the expense of energy. Expansion of a leaf is growth; swelling of a piece of wood in water is not.वृद्धि जीवों का सबसे मूल लक्षण है: किसी अंग, उसके भाग या एक कोशिका के आकार में अपरिवर्तनीय स्थायी वृद्धि, प्रायः ऊर्जा के व्यय से होने वाली उपापचयी (उपचयी व अपचयी) क्रियाओं के साथ। पत्ती का फैलना वृद्धि है; पानी में लकड़ी का फूलना नहीं।Growth = irreversible, permanent size increase, energy kharch karke. Leaf ka badhna growth; lakdi ka phoolna nahi.Growth is the most basic feature of living things. It is an increase in size that cannot be reversed and stays for good (irreversible permanent increase). It can be growth of an organ, its parts, or even a single cell. Growth usually comes with metabolic processes — building up (anabolic) and breaking down (catabolic) — and these use energy. A leaf getting bigger is growth. But a piece of wood swelling in water is not growth (it is not alive and the change is not permanent).
13.1.1Plant growth generally is indeterminateपादप वृद्धि प्रायः अनिश्चित होती हैPlant growth indeterminate
Plants retain the capacity for unlimited growth throughout life because of meristems at certain locations, whose cells can divide and self-perpetuate; the products soon lose the capacity to divide and make up the plant body. This form, where new cells are always added by the meristem, is the open form of growth. Root and shoot apical meristems give primary growth (elongation along the axis). In dicots and gymnosperms the lateral meristems — vascular cambium and cork cambium — appear later and cause secondary growth (increase in girth).पादप विभज्योतकों के कारण जीवन भर असीमित वृद्धि की क्षमता रखते, जिनकी कोशिकाएँ विभाजित होकर स्वयं बनी रहती हैं; उनसे बनी कोशिकाएँ जल्दी विभाजन क्षमता खोकर पादप शरीर बनाती हैं। विभज्योतक द्वारा सदा नई कोशिकाएँ जुड़ने का यह रूप खुली वृद्धि है। मूल और प्ररोह शीर्ष विभज्योतक प्राथमिक वृद्धि (अक्ष पर लंबाई) देते। द्विबीजपत्री और अनावृतबीजी में बाद में पार्श्व विभज्योतक — संवहन एधा और कॉर्क एधा — द्वितीयक वृद्धि (मोटाई) करते।Meristems ki wajah se poori zindagi growth = open form of growth. Apical meristems → primary growth (lambai); vascular + cork cambium → secondary growth (motai).Plants can keep growing all their life. This is because they have meristems at certain places. Meristem cells can divide and also keep making more meristem cells. The new cells soon lose the power to divide and become part of the plant body. Since the meristem keeps adding new cells all the time, this is called the open form of growth. Root and shoot apical meristems (at the tips) cause primary growth — the plant grows longer along its axis. In dicots and gymnosperms, lateral meristems — the vascular cambium and cork cambium — appear later. They cause secondary growth — the plant gets thicker (increase in girth).
13.1.2Growth is measurableवृद्धि मापनीय हैGrowth measurable
At cellular level growth is mainly an increase in protoplasm, hard to measure directly, so related quantities are measured: increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area, volume and cell number. One single maize root apical meristem can give rise to more than 17,500 new cells per hour, whereas cells in a watermelon may increase in size by up to 3,50,000 times; growth of a pollen tube is measured as length, and of a dorsiventral leaf as surface area.कोशिकीय स्तर पर वृद्धि मुख्यतः जीवद्रव्य में वृद्धि है, जिसे सीधे मापना कठिन, अतः संबंधित मात्राएँ मापी जातीं: ताज़ा भार, शुष्क भार, लंबाई, क्षेत्रफल, आयतन और कोशिका संख्या में वृद्धि। मक्का का एक मूल शीर्ष विभज्योतक प्रति घंटे 17,500 से अधिक नई कोशिकाएँ बना सकता, जबकि तरबूज़ की कोशिकाएँ आकार में 3,50,000 गुना तक बढ़ सकतीं; पराग नलिका की वृद्धि लंबाई में, पृष्ठाधारी पत्ती की सतह क्षेत्रफल में मापी जाती।Protoplasm badhna seedha naapna mushkil → fresh/dry weight, length, area, volume, cell number. Maize root meristem 17,500 cells/hour; tarbooz cell 3,50,000 guna; pollen tube = length; leaf = area.At the cell level, growth is mainly an increase in protoplasm (the living material of the cell). This is hard to measure directly, so we measure things linked to it: increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area, volume and cell number. One maize root apical meristem can make more than 17,500 new cells per hour. Cells in a watermelon can grow up to 3,50,000 times bigger. The growth of a pollen tube is measured by its length, and the growth of a dorsiventral leaf by its surface area.
13.1.3Phases of growthवृद्धि की प्रावस्थाएँGrowth ke phases
The period of growth is divided into three phases — meristematic, elongation and maturation. At the root or shoot tip, constantly dividing cells form the meristematic phase (rich protoplasm, large conspicuous nuclei, thin cellulosic primary walls, abundant plasmodesmata). Cells just behind it form the phase of elongation — increased vacuolation, cell enlargement and new wall deposition. Further away is the phase of maturation, where cells attain their maximal size in terms of wall thickening and protoplasmic modifications. Meristematic, elongation, maturation.वृद्धि काल तीन प्रावस्थाओं में — विभज्योतकी, दीर्घीकरण और परिपक्वन। मूल या प्ररोह शीर्ष पर लगातार विभाजित कोशिकाएँ विभज्योतकी प्रावस्था (सघन जीवद्रव्य, बड़े स्पष्ट केंद्रक, पतली सेलुलोसी प्राथमिक भित्ति, अनेक जीवद्रव्य तंतु)। उसके ठीक पीछे दीर्घीकरण प्रावस्था — बढ़ा रिक्तिकायन, कोशिका वृद्धि, नई भित्ति निक्षेपण। और दूर परिपक्वन प्रावस्था — भित्ति मोटाई व जीवद्रव्य रूपांतरण में कोशिकाएँ अधिकतम आकार पातीं। विभज्योतकी, दीर्घीकरण, परिपक्वन।3 phases: meristematic (division), elongation (vacuoles, cell badhna), maturation (final size). Meristematic, elongation, maturation.Growth has three phases — meristematic, elongation and maturation. At the root tip or shoot tip, cells keep dividing; this is the meristematic phase. These cells have a lot of protoplasm, large clear nuclei, thin cellulose primary walls and many plasmodesmata (connections between cells). Just behind them is the phase of elongation. Here the cells get more vacuoles, grow bigger, and add new wall material. Further back is the phase of maturation. Here the cells reach their full size, with thicker walls and changes in their protoplasm. 👉 Meristematic
13.1.4Growth ratesवृद्धि दरेंGrowth rates
Increased growth per unit time is the growth rate; it may be arithmetic or geometric. In arithmetic growth, after mitosis only one daughter cell continues to divide while the other differentiates and matures — e.g. a root elongating at a constant rate; length vs time gives a linear curve: Lt = L0 + rt (Lt = length at time t, L0 = length at time zero, r = growth rate/elongation per unit time). In geometric growth, initial growth is slow (lag phase), then rapid at an exponential rate (log or exponential phase) — both progeny cells keep dividing; with limited nutrient supply growth slows to a stationary phase. Plotting this gives a sigmoid (S) curve, typical of all cells, tissues and organs of a plant growing in a natural environment. Exponential growth: W1 = W0 eʳᵗ (W1 = final size, W0 = initial size, r = growth rate, t = time, e = base of natural logarithms); r is the relative growth rate — a measure of the plant’s ability to produce new plant material, the efficiency index. Arithmetic, geometric.प्रति इकाई समय वृद्धि वृद्धि दर है; यह अंकगणितीय या ज्यामितीय हो सकती। अंकगणितीय वृद्धि में सूत्री विभाजन के बाद केवल एक संतति कोशिका विभाजित होती, दूसरी विभेदित होकर परिपक्व — जैसे स्थिर दर से बढ़ती जड़; लंबाई बनाम समय रैखिक वक्र: Lt = L0 + rt (Lt = समय t पर लंबाई, L0 = शून्य समय पर लंबाई, r = वृद्धि दर)। ज्यामितीय वृद्धि में प्रारंभिक वृद्धि धीमी (पश्चता प्रावस्था), फिर चरघातांकी दर से तेज़ (लघुगणकीय या चरघातांकी प्रावस्था) — दोनों संतति कोशिकाएँ विभाजित; सीमित पोषण पर वृद्धि धीमी होकर स्थिर प्रावस्था। इसका आलेख सिग्मॉइड (S) वक्र, प्राकृतिक वातावरण में बढ़ते पादप की सभी कोशिकाओं, ऊतकों, अंगों की विशेषता। चरघातांकी वृद्धि: W1 = W0 eʳᵗ (W1 = अंतिम आकार, W0 = प्रारंभिक आकार, r = वृद्धि दर, t = समय, e = प्राकृतिक लघुगणक का आधार); r आपेक्षिक वृद्धि दर — नया पादप पदार्थ बनाने की क्षमता का माप, दक्षता सूचकांक। अंकगणितीय, ज्यामितीय।Arithmetic: ek cell divide → Lt = L0 + rt (line). Geometric: dono divide → lag → log → stationary = S-curve; W1 = W0 eʳᵗ, r = relative growth rate (efficiency index). Arithmetic, geometric.The increase in growth per unit time is called the growth rate. It can be Arithmetic or geometric. In arithmetic growth, after mitosis only one daughter cell keeps dividing, and the other one differentiates and matures. Example: a root growing longer at a steady rate. A graph of length against time gives a straight line (linear curve): Lt = L0 + rt. Here Lt = length at time t, L0 = length at time zero, and r = growth rate (increase in length per unit time). In geometric growth, growth is slow at first (lag phase). Then it becomes very fast, increasing exponentially (log or exponential phase), because both daughter cells keep dividing. When nutrients become limited, growth slows down and stops at the stationary phase. This graph is an S-shaped (sigmoid) curve. It is typical of all cells, tissues and organs of a plant growing in nature. Exponential growth is written as W1 = W0 eʳᵗ. Here W1 = final size, W0 = starting size, r = growth rate, t = time, and e = the base of natural logarithms. r is the relative growth rate. It shows how well the plant can make new plant material, so it is also called the efficiency index.
Growth rates are also compared as absolute growth rate — measurement and comparison of total growth per unit time — and relative growth rate — growth of the system per unit time expressed on a common basis, e.g. per unit initial parameter. Two leaves A and B of different sizes may show the same absolute increase in area in a given time, yet the smaller one has the higher relative growth rate.वृद्धि दरों की तुलना निरपेक्ष वृद्धि दर — प्रति इकाई समय कुल वृद्धि का मापन — और आपेक्षिक वृद्धि दर — प्रति इकाई समय वृद्धि को सामान्य आधार (जैसे प्रति इकाई प्रारंभिक मान) पर व्यक्त करना — के रूप में भी। अलग आकार की दो पत्तियाँ A और B एक समय में क्षेत्रफल में समान निरपेक्ष वृद्धि दिखा सकतीं, फिर भी छोटी की आपेक्षिक वृद्धि दर अधिक।Absolute = kul growth/time. Relative = growth/time per unit initial size. Same absolute increase par chhoti leaf ki relative rate zyada.We can compare growth in two ways. Absolute growth rate means measuring and comparing the total growth per unit time. Relative growth rate means the growth per unit time compared on a common basis, for example per unit of starting size. Suppose two leaves, A and B, of different sizes grow by the same amount of area in the same time. Their absolute growth is the same, but the smaller leaf has the higher relative growth rate.
13.1.5Conditions for growthवृद्धि की दशाएँGrowth ki conditions
Water — cells grow by enlargement, which needs water; turgidity helps extension growth; water also provides the medium for enzymatic activities. Oxygen — releases metabolic energy essential for growth. Nutrients (macro and micro essential elements) — for synthesis of protoplasm and as a source of energy. Each plant has an optimum temperature range; deviations can be detrimental. Light and gravity also affect certain phases/stages of growth.जल — कोशिका वृद्धि के लिए जल आवश्यक; स्फीति दीर्घीकरण वृद्धि में सहायक; जल एंजाइमी क्रियाओं का माध्यम। ऑक्सीजन — वृद्धि हेतु उपापचयी ऊर्जा मुक्त करती। पोषक (वृहत् व सूक्ष्म आवश्यक तत्व) — जीवद्रव्य संश्लेषण और ऊर्जा स्रोत। हर पादप का इष्टतम ताप परास; विचलन हानिकारक। प्रकाश और गुरुत्व भी वृद्धि की कुछ अवस्थाओं को प्रभावित करते।Water (turgidity), O₂ (energy), nutrients, optimum temperature, light, gravity.Conditions for growth: Water — cells grow by getting bigger, and this needs water. Turgidity (cells being full of water) helps them stretch and grow. Water is also the medium in which enzymes work. Oxygen — it helps release energy from food, which is needed for growth. Nutrients (the major and minor essential elements) — they are needed to make protoplasm and to give energy. Each plant has a best (optimum) temperature range; going too far above or below it can harm the plant. Light and gravity also affect certain stages of growth.
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13.2Differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiationविभेदन, निर्विभेदन और पुनर्विभेदनDifferentiation, dedifferentiation, redifferentiation
Cells from root/shoot apical meristems and cambium differentiate and mature to perform specific functions — differentiation. During it, cells undergo major structural changes in walls and protoplasm; e.g. to form a tracheary element, cells lose their protoplasm and develop strong, elastic, lignocellulosic secondary walls to carry water over long distances under extreme tension. Living differentiated cells that have lost the capacity to divide can regain it under certain conditions — dedifferentiation — e.g. formation of interfascicular cambium and cork cambium from fully differentiated parenchyma cells. Such meristems/tissues divide and produce cells that once again lose the capacity to divide and mature to perform specific functions — redifferentiation. Final structure at maturity of a cell/tissue is also determined by the location of the cell within (e.g. cells away from the root apical meristem become root-cap cells, those pushed to the periphery mature as epidermis).मूल/प्ररोह शीर्ष विभज्योतकों और एधा की कोशिकाएँ विशिष्ट कार्य हेतु विभेदित और परिपक्व होतीं — विभेदन। इसमें भित्ति और जीवद्रव्य में बड़े संरचनात्मक परिवर्तन; जैसे वाहिनिका तत्व बनाने में कोशिकाएँ जीवद्रव्य खोकर अत्यधिक तनाव में दूर तक जल ले जाने हेतु मज़बूत, लचीली, लिग्नोसेलुलोसी द्वितीयक भित्ति बनातीं। विभाजन क्षमता खो चुकी जीवित विभेदित कोशिकाएँ कुछ दशाओं में फिर से यह क्षमता पा सकतीं — निर्विभेदन — जैसे पूर्ण विभेदित मृदूतक से अंतरापूलीय एधा और कॉर्क एधा का बनना। ऐसे विभज्योतक/ऊतक विभाजित होकर कोशिकाएँ बनाते जो फिर विभाजन क्षमता खोकर विशिष्ट कार्य हेतु परिपक्व — पुनर्विभेदन। परिपक्वता पर अंतिम संरचना कोशिका की स्थिति से भी तय (जैसे मूल शीर्ष विभज्योतक से दूर धकेली कोशिकाएँ मूलगोप, परिधि की ओर वाली अधिचर्म बनतीं)।Differentiation = specific kaam ke liye cell badalna (jaise tracheary element). Dedifferentiation = division ki shakti wapas (parenchyma → interfascicular/cork cambium). Redifferentiation = phir se specialised cells. Location bhi decide karti.Cells made by the root and shoot apical meristems and the cambium change and mature to do special jobs. This is called differentiation. During it, the cell walls and protoplasm change a lot. For example, to become a tracheary element (a water-carrying cell of xylem), a cell loses its protoplasm and builds a strong, elastic secondary wall of lignin and cellulose. This lets it carry water over long distances, even under very high tension. Sometimes living differentiated cells, which had lost the power to divide, can get it back. This is called dedifferentiation. Example: interfascicular cambium and cork cambium form from fully differentiated parenchyma cells. These new meristems divide and make cells that again lose the power to divide and mature to do special jobs. This is called redifferentiation. The final structure of a cell also depends on its position. For example, cells pushed away from the root apical meristem become root-cap cells, and cells pushed to the outside become epidermis.
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13.3Developmentपरिवर्धनDevelopment
Development includes all changes an organism goes through during its life cycle, from germination of the seed to senescence; it applies to cells, tissues and organs too: plant cell → division → meristematic cell → expansion (elongation) → differentiation → mature cell (with plasmatic growth, plasmatic changes). Plants follow different pathways in response to environment or phases of life to form different kinds of structures — plasticity, e.g. heterophylly in cotton, coriander and larkspur (juvenile leaves differ in shape from mature leaves); in buttercup leaves produced in air differ from those in water — heterophylly due to environment. So growth, differentiation and development are very closely related; development = growth + differentiation, under intrinsic (intracellular genetic, intercellular chemical — PGRs) and extrinsic (light, temperature, water, oxygen, nutrition) factors.परिवर्धन में बीज अंकुरण से जीर्णता तक जीवन चक्र के सभी परिवर्तन शामिल; यह कोशिका, ऊतक, अंग पर भी लागू: पादप कोशिका → विभाजन → विभज्योतकी कोशिका → प्रसार (दीर्घीकरण) → विभेदन → परिपक्व कोशिका। पर्यावरण या जीवन की प्रावस्था के अनुसार पादप भिन्न मार्ग अपनाकर भिन्न संरचनाएँ बनाते — सुघट्यता (प्लास्टिसिटी), जैसे कपास, धनिया और लार्कस्पर में विषमपर्णता (किशोर पत्तियाँ परिपक्व से भिन्न आकार की); बटरकप में वायु और जल में बनी पत्तियाँ भिन्न — पर्यावरण के कारण विषमपर्णता। अतः परिवर्धन = वृद्धि + विभेदन, आंतरिक (कोशिका के भीतर आनुवंशिक, कोशिकाओं के बीच रासायनिक — PGR) और बाह्य (प्रकाश, ताप, जल, ऑक्सीजन, पोषण) कारकों के अधीन।Development = germination se senescence tak sab badlav. Plasticity: alag halat mein alag structure — heterophylly (cotton, coriander, larkspur — umar se; buttercup — paani/hawa se).Development means all the changes a living thing goes through in its life cycle, from germination of the seed to senescence (old age). It applies to cells, tissues and organs too: a plant cell → divides → meristematic cell → grows longer (elongation) → differentiates → mature cell. Plants can follow different paths depending on their surroundings or their stage of life, and form different kinds of structures. This ability is called plasticity. Example: heterophylly (different kinds of leaves on the same plant) in cotton, coriander and larkspur, where young leaves have a different shape from mature leaves. In buttercup, leaves formed in air look different from leaves formed in water — this heterophylly is caused by the environment. So growth, differentiation and development are very closely linked. Development = growth + differentiation. It is controlled by intrinsic factors (genes inside the cell, and chemicals between cells — PGRs) and extrinsic factors (light, temperature, water, oxygen and nutrition).
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13.4Plant growth regulatorsपादप वृद्धि नियामकPlant growth regulators (PGRs)
13.4.1Characteristicsअभिलक्षणCharacteristics
PGRs are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition: indole compounds (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA); adenine derivatives (N⁶-furfurylamino purine, kinetin); derivatives of carotenoids (abscisic acid, ABA); terpenes (gibberellic acid, GA₃) or gases (ethylene, C₂H₄). They are also called plant growth substances, plant hormones or phytohormones. Broadly two groups: plant growth promoters — cell division, enlargement, pattern formation, tropic growth, flowering, fruiting, seed formation (auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins); and plant growth inhibitors — responses to wounds and stresses, dormancy, abscission (abscisic acid). Ethylene can fit either group but is largely an inhibitor.PGR विविध रासायनिक संरचना के छोटे, सरल अणु हैं: इंडोल यौगिक (इंडोल-3-ऐसीटिक अम्ल, IAA); एडेनीन व्युत्पन्न (N⁶-फ़रफ़्यूरिलऐमिनो प्यूरीन, काइनेटिन); कैरोटिनॉइड व्युत्पन्न (एब्सिसिक अम्ल, ABA); टर्पीन (जिबरेलिक अम्ल, GA₃) या गैस (एथिलीन, C₂H₄)। इन्हें पादप वृद्धि पदार्थ, पादप हॉर्मोन या फ़ाइटोहॉर्मोन भी कहते। दो वर्ग: पादप वृद्धि वर्धक — कोशिका विभाजन, वृद्धि, पैटर्न निर्माण, अनुवर्तनी वृद्धि, पुष्पन, फलन, बीज निर्माण (ऑक्सिन, जिबरेलिन, साइटोकाइनिन); और पादप वृद्धि निरोधक — घाव व तनाव की अनुक्रिया, प्रसुप्ति, विलगन (एब्सिसिक अम्ल)। एथिलीन किसी भी वर्ग में, पर मुख्यतः निरोधक।PGRs = chhote molecules: IAA (indole), kinetin (adenine), ABA (carotenoid), GA₃ (terpene), ethylene (gas). Promoters: auxin, GA, cytokinin. Inhibitor: ABA. Ethylene dono, zyada inhibitor.Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are small, simple molecules of many different chemical kinds. They can be indole compounds (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA), adenine derivatives (N⁶-furfurylamino purine, kinetin), derivatives of carotenoids (abscisic acid, ABA), terpenes (gibberellic acid, GA₃) or gases (ethylene, C₂H₄). They are also called plant growth substances, plant hormones or phytohormones. They are of two broad groups. Plant growth promoters help in cell division, cell enlargement, pattern formation, tropic growth (growth towards or away from a stimulus), flowering, fruiting and seed formation. These are auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins. Plant growth inhibitors act in responses to wounds and stress, dormancy (resting) and abscission (falling off). This is abscisic acid. Ethylene can fit in either group, but it is mostly an inhibitor.
13.4.2The discovery of plant growth regulatorsपादप वृद्धि नियामकों की खोजPGRs ki khoj
- Auxin — Charles Darwin and his son Francis Darwin saw that coleoptiles of canary grass bent towards unilateral light (phototropism); the tip was the site of a transmissible influence. Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from tips of oat coleoptiles.ऑक्सिन — चार्ल्स डार्विन और उनके पुत्र फ़्रांसिस डार्विन ने देखा कि कैनरी घास के प्रांकुर चोल एकतरफ़ा प्रकाश की ओर मुड़ते (प्रकाशानुवर्तन); शीर्ष संचारित होने वाले प्रभाव का स्थल। एफ़.डब्ल्यू. वेन्ट ने जई के प्रांकुर चोल शीर्ष से ऑक्सिन पृथक् किया।Auxin — Darwin (canary grass coleoptile, phototropism); Went ne oat se isolate kiya.
- Gibberellin — the ‘bakane’ (foolish seedling) disease of rice was caused by the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi; E. Kurosawa (1926) reproduced the symptoms in healthy rice seedlings with sterile fungal filtrates; the active substance was later identified as gibberellic acid.जिबरेलिन — धान का ‘बकाने’ (मूर्ख नवोद्भिद) रोग कवक जिबरेला फ़्यूजीकुरोई से; ई. कुरोसावा (1926) ने कवक के रोगाणुरहित निस्यंद से स्वस्थ नवोद्भिदों में लक्षण उत्पन्न किए; सक्रिय पदार्थ बाद में जिबरेलिक अम्ल पहचाना गया।GA — rice bakane disease, fungus Gibberella fujikuroi, Kurosawa 1926.
- Cytokinin — F. Skoog and co-workers found that callus from tobacco internodal segments proliferated only if, besides auxin, the medium had vascular tissue extract, yeast extract, coconut milk or DNA; Skoog and Miller (1955) identified and crystallised the cytokinesis-promoting substance — kinetin.साइटोकाइनिन — एफ़. स्कूग और साथियों ने पाया कि तंबाकू के पर्वसंधि खंडों से कैलस तभी बढ़ता जब माध्यम में ऑक्सिन के साथ संवहन ऊतक का सार, यीस्ट सार, नारियल पानी या DNA हो; स्कूग और मिलर (1955) ने कोशिकाद्रव्य विभाजन बढ़ाने वाला पदार्थ पहचानकर क्रिस्टलित किया — काइनेटिन।Cytokinin — Skoog, tobacco callus + coconut milk; Skoog & Miller 1955 → kinetin.
- Abscisic acid — in the mid-1960s three independent researchers purified inhibitor-B, abscission II and dormin; all three proved chemically identical and were named abscisic acid (ABA).एब्सिसिक अम्ल — 1960 के मध्य में तीन स्वतंत्र शोधों ने इन्हिबिटर-B, एब्सिसिन II और डॉर्मिन शुद्ध किए; तीनों रासायनिक रूप से समान निकले — एब्सिसिक अम्ल (ABA)।ABA — inhibitor-B, abscission II, dormin = same.
- Ethylene — H.H. Cousins (1910) confirmed that a volatile substance released from ripened oranges hastened ripening of stored unripe bananas; it was later identified as ethylene.एथिलीन — एच.एच. कज़िन्स (1910) ने पुष्टि की कि पके संतरों से निकला वाष्पशील पदार्थ भंडारित कच्चे केलों को जल्दी पकाता; बाद में यह एथिलीन पहचाना गया।Ethylene — Cousins 1910, pake santre → kele jaldi pake.
13.4.3Physiological effects of plant growth regulatorsपादप वृद्धि नियामकों के कार्यिकीय प्रभावPGRs ke effects
Auxins (Greek auxein: to grow) were first isolated from human urine. The term covers IAA and other natural and synthetic compounds; natural: IAA, IBA (indole butyric acid); synthetic: NAA (naphthalene acetic acid), 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid). Generally produced by growing apices of stems and roots, from where they migrate to the regions of action. Effects: initiate rooting in stem cuttings (widely used for plant propagation); promote flowering (e.g. pineapple); prevent fruit and leaf drop at early stages but promote abscission of older mature leaves and fruits; apical dominance — the growing apical bud inhibits lateral buds; removal of the shoot tip (decapitation) makes lateral buds grow (used in tea plantations, hedge-making); induce parthenocarpy (e.g. tomato); used as herbicides — 2,4-D kills dicot weeds but does not affect mature monocots, used to prepare weed-free lawns; control xylem differentiation and help in cell division. Apical dominance.ऑक्सिन (यूनानी ऑक्सीन: बढ़ना) पहली बार मानव मूत्र से पृथक्। यह IAA और अन्य प्राकृतिक व संश्लेषित यौगिकों हेतु; प्राकृतिक: IAA, IBA (इंडोल ब्यूटिरिक अम्ल); संश्लेषित: NAA (नैफ़्थलीन ऐसीटिक अम्ल), 2,4-D। प्रायः तने और जड़ के बढ़ते शीर्षों पर बनकर क्रिया क्षेत्रों तक जाते। प्रभाव: तने की कलमों में जड़ बनाना (पादप प्रवर्धन में व्यापक उपयोग); पुष्पन (जैसे अनन्नास); प्रारंभिक अवस्था में फल व पत्ती गिरने से रोकना पर पुरानी परिपक्व पत्तियों व फलों का विलगन; शीर्ष प्रभाविता — बढ़ती शीर्ष कलिका पार्श्व कलिकाओं को रोकती; प्ररोह शीर्ष हटाने (शीर्ष-छेदन) से पार्श्व कलिकाएँ बढ़तीं (चाय बागान, बाड़); अनिषेकफलन (जैसे टमाटर); खरपतवारनाशी — 2,4-D द्विबीजपत्री खरपतवार नष्ट करता, परिपक्व एकबीजपत्री पर असर नहीं, खरपतवार-मुक्त लॉन; जाइलम विभेदन नियंत्रण और कोशिका विभाजन में सहायक। शीर्ष प्रभाविता।Auxin — pehle human urine se. IAA, IBA (natural), NAA, 2,4-D (synthetic). Kaam: cutting mein jadein, pineapple flowering, early fruit/leaf drop roke, apical dominance (tea, hedges), parthenocarpy (tomato), 2,4-D herbicide (dicot weeds), xylem differentiation. Apical dominance.Auxins (from the Greek auxein, meaning to grow) were first taken out (isolated) from human urine. The word covers IAA and other natural and man-made compounds. Natural auxins: IAA and IBA (indole butyric acid). Synthetic (man-made) auxins: NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid). They are usually made at the growing tips of stems and roots and move to where they act. Uses and effects: they start root formation in stem cuttings (widely used to grow new plants); they help flowering (for example in pineapple); they stop young fruits and leaves from falling early, but help older leaves and fruits to fall. Apical dominance: the growing top bud stops the side buds from growing. If the shoot tip is cut off (decapitation), the side buds start growing; this is used in tea plantations and hedge-making. They cause parthenocarpy (fruit without fertilisation), for example in tomato. They are used as herbicides (weed killers): 2,4-D kills dicot weeds but does not harm mature monocots, so it is used to make weed-free lawns. They also control xylem differentiation and help in cell division.
Gibberellins — another kind of promotory PGR; more than 100 reported from fungi and higher plants (GA₁, GA₂, GA₃…); GA₃ was one of the first discovered and is the most intensively studied. All GAs are acidic. Effects: increase in axis length — used to increase the length of grapes stalks; elongate and improve the shape of fruits like apple; delay senescence, so fruits can be left on the tree longer to extend market period; used to speed up malting in the brewing industry; spraying sugarcane increases stem length and yield by as much as 20 tonnes per acre; spraying juvenile conifers hastens maturity and early seed production; promote bolting (internode elongation just before flowering) in beet, cabbage and many rosette plants.जिबरेलिन — एक और वृद्धि वर्धक PGR; कवकों और उच्च पादपों से 100 से अधिक (GA₁, GA₂, GA₃…); GA₃ सबसे पहले खोजे गए में से और सर्वाधिक अध्ययन। सभी GA अम्लीय। प्रभाव: अक्ष की लंबाई में वृद्धि — अंगूर के डंठल लंबे करने में; सेब जैसे फलों को लंबा कर आकार सुधारना; जीर्णता विलंब, ताकि फल पेड़ पर देर तक रहें और बाज़ार अवधि बढ़े; शराब उद्योग में माल्टिंग प्रक्रिया तेज़; गन्ने पर छिड़काव से तने की लंबाई और उपज 20 टन प्रति एकड़ तक बढ़ती; किशोर शंकुधारी पर छिड़काव से जल्दी परिपक्वता और बीज; चुकंदर, पत्तागोभी जैसे रोज़ेट पादपों में बोल्टिंग (पुष्पन से ठीक पहले पर्व दीर्घीकरण)।GA — 100+, GA₃ main, sab acidic. Kaam: angoor ke stalk lambe, apple shape, senescence delay, malting, ganna +20 tonnes/acre, conifers jaldi seeds, bolting (beet, cabbage).Gibberellins are another kind of growth-promoting PGR. More than 100 gibberellins have been found in fungi and higher plants (GA₁, GA₂, GA₃ …). GA₃ was one of the first found and is the most studied. All GAs are acidic. Effects and uses: they make the axis longer, so they are used to make grape stalks longer; they make fruits like apple longer and better shaped; they delay senescence (ageing), so fruits can stay on the tree longer and be sold over a longer time; they are used to speed up malting in the brewing industry; spraying sugarcane with them makes the stem longer and raises the yield by as much as 20 tonnes per acre; spraying young conifers makes them mature faster and give seeds early; they cause bolting (sudden lengthening of internodes just before flowering) in beet, cabbage and many rosette plants.
Cytokinins have specific effects on cytokinesis; discovered as kinetin (a modified adenine, a purine) from autoclaved herring sperm DNA — kinetin does not occur naturally in plants. Natural cytokinin zeatin was isolated from corn kernels and coconut milk. Natural cytokinins are synthesised where rapid cell division occurs — root apices, developing shoot buds, young fruits. Effects: help produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation; help overcome apical dominance; promote nutrient mobilisation, which helps delay leaf senescence.साइटोकाइनिन का कोशिकाद्रव्य विभाजन पर विशेष प्रभाव; ऑटोक्लेव की गई हेरिंग मछली के शुक्राणु DNA से काइनेटिन (रूपांतरित एडेनीन, प्यूरीन) के रूप में खोजे गए — काइनेटिन पादपों में प्राकृतिक रूप से नहीं मिलता। प्राकृतिक साइटोकाइनिन ज़ियाटिन मक्का के दानों और नारियल पानी से। प्राकृतिक साइटोकाइनिन तीव्र विभाजन वाले क्षेत्रों — मूल शीर्ष, विकसित होती प्ररोह कलिकाएँ, नए फल — में बनते। प्रभाव: नई पत्तियाँ, पत्तियों में हरितलवक, पार्श्व प्ररोह वृद्धि और अपस्थानिक प्ररोह बनाने में सहायक; शीर्ष प्रभाविता दूर करते; पोषक संचलन बढ़ाकर पत्ती जीर्णता में विलंब।Cytokinin — cytokinesis; kinetin herring sperm DNA se (natural nahi); zeatin makka + coconut milk. Bante: root apex, shoot buds, young fruits. Kaam: new leaves, chloroplasts, lateral shoots, apical dominance todna, leaf senescence delay.Cytokinins have special effects on cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm). They were found as kinetin (a changed form of adenine, which is a purine), taken from autoclaved herring sperm DNA (DNA heated under pressure). Kinetin is not found naturally in plants. A natural cytokinin, zeatin, was taken from corn kernels and coconut milk. Natural cytokinins are made where cells divide fast — root tips, developing shoot buds and young fruits. Effects: they help make new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, side shoots and adventitious shoots; they help overcome apical dominance; they help move nutrients (nutrient mobilisation), which delays leaf senescence (ageing of leaves).
Ethylene — a simple gaseous PGR, synthesised in large amounts by tissues undergoing senescence and by ripening fruits. Effects: horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of the axis and apical hook formation in dicot seedlings; promotes senescence and abscission of leaves and flowers; highly effective in fruit ripening — enhances respiration rate during ripening (respiratory climacteric); breaks seed and bud dormancy, initiates germination in peanut seeds and sprouting of potato tubers; promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation in deep-water rice, keeping upper parts above water; promotes root growth and root hair formation, increasing absorption surface; used to initiate flowering and synchronise fruit-set in pineapples, and induces flowering in mango. Ethylene is the most widely used PGR in agriculture; its source is ethephon, which in aqueous solution is absorbed and releases ethylene slowly — it hastens ripening in tomatoes and apples, accelerates abscission in flowers and fruits (thinning of cotton, cherry, walnut) and promotes female flowers in cucumbers, increasing yield.एथिलीन — सरल गैसीय PGR, जीर्ण होते ऊतकों और पकते फलों द्वारा अधिक मात्रा में। प्रभाव: नवोद्भिदों की क्षैतिज वृद्धि, अक्ष का फूलना और द्विबीजपत्री नवोद्भिद में शीर्ष हुक; पत्तियों व फूलों की जीर्णता व विलगन; फल पकाने में अत्यंत प्रभावी — पकते समय श्वसन दर बढ़ाता (श्वसन क्लाइमैक्टेरिक); बीज व कलिका प्रसुप्ति तोड़ता, मूँगफली के बीज का अंकुरण और आलू कंद का अंकुरण; गहरे जल के धान में पर्व/पर्णवृंत का तेज़ दीर्घीकरण, ऊपरी भाग जल से ऊपर; जड़ वृद्धि और मूलरोम बनाता; अनन्नास में पुष्पन शुरू कर फल समकालिक करता, आम में पुष्पन प्रेरित। कृषि में सर्वाधिक प्रयुक्त PGR; स्रोत इथेफ़ॉन, जो जलीय विलयन में अवशोषित होकर धीरे-धीरे एथिलीन छोड़ता — टमाटर, सेब जल्दी पकाता, फूल-फल विलगन तेज़ (कपास, चेरी, अखरोट का विरलन) और खीरे में मादा फूल बढ़ाकर उपज बढ़ाता।Ethylene — gas; ripening fruits, senescence. Kaam: apical hook, senescence + abscission, fruit ripening (respiratory climacteric), dormancy todna (peanut, aloo), deep-water rice, root hairs, pineapple/mango flowering. Ethephon: tomato/apple pakana, cotton/cherry/walnut thinning, kheere mein female flowers.Ethylene is a simple gas PGR. Large amounts are made by tissues that are ageing (senescence) and by ripening fruits. Effects: it makes seedlings grow sideways, makes the axis swell, and forms an apical hook in dicot seedlings; it causes ageing and falling (senescence and abscission) of leaves and flowers; it is very effective in ripening fruits — it raises the rate of respiration during ripening, which is called the respiratory climacteric; it breaks seed and bud dormancy and starts germination in peanut seeds and sprouting in potato tubers; it makes internodes and petioles grow fast in deep-water rice, so the upper parts stay above water; it helps root growth and root hair formation, giving more surface for absorption; it is used to start flowering and make fruit-set happen together (synchronise) in pineapples, and it also causes flowering in mango. Ethylene is the PGR used most in farming. Its source is ethephon. In water solution, ethephon is easily absorbed and slowly releases ethylene. It speeds up ripening in tomatoes and apples, makes flowers and fruits fall faster (thinning of cotton, cherry and walnut), and increases female flowers in cucumbers, which raises the yield.
Abscisic acid (ABA) was discovered for its role in regulating abscission and dormancy. It acts as a general plant growth inhibitor and an inhibitor of plant metabolism. ABA inhibits seed germination; stimulates closure of stomata in the epidermis and increases the tolerance of plants to various kinds of stress — hence it is also called the stress hormone. It plays an important role in seed development, maturation and dormancy; by inducing dormancy, ABA helps seeds withstand desiccation and other unfavourable factors. In most situations ABA acts as an antagonist to GAs. For any phase of growth, differentiation and development one or other PGR has a role — complementary or antagonistic, individualistic or synergistic; e.g. dormancy in seeds/buds, abscission, senescence and apical dominance involve more than one PGR. Extrinsic factors such as temperature and light control plant growth and development via PGRs; events like vernalisation, flowering, dormancy, seed germination and plant movements come under this.एब्सिसिक अम्ल (ABA) विलगन और प्रसुप्ति के नियमन हेतु खोजा गया। यह सामान्य पादप वृद्धि निरोधक और उपापचय निरोधक है। ABA बीज अंकुरण रोकता; अधिचर्म में रंध्रों को बंद कराता और विभिन्न तनावों के प्रति सहनशीलता बढ़ाता — इसलिए इसे तनाव हॉर्मोन भी कहते। बीज विकास, परिपक्वन और प्रसुप्ति में महत्वपूर्ण; प्रसुप्ति प्रेरित कर ABA बीजों को शुष्कन व अन्य प्रतिकूल कारकों से बचाता। अधिकतर स्थितियों में ABA GA का प्रतिपक्षी। वृद्धि, विभेदन, परिवर्धन की हर प्रावस्था में कोई न कोई PGR — पूरक या प्रतिपक्षी, एकल या सहक्रियाशील; जैसे बीज/कलिका प्रसुप्ति, विलगन, जीर्णता, शीर्ष प्रभाविता में एक से अधिक PGR। ताप और प्रकाश जैसे बाह्य कारक PGR के माध्यम से वृद्धि व परिवर्धन नियंत्रित करते; बसंतीकरण, पुष्पन, प्रसुप्ति, अंकुरण, पादप गतियाँ इसी में आतीं।ABA — abscission + dormancy. General inhibitor; germination roke, stomata band, stress tolerance → stress hormone. Seed maturation + dormancy. GA ka antagonist. Kai events mein multiple PGRs saath.Abscisic acid (ABA) was found because of its role in controlling abscission (falling) and dormancy (resting). It works as a general plant growth inhibitor and also slows down plant metabolism. ABA stops seed germination. It makes stomata close and helps plants bear different kinds of stress. So it is also called the stress hormone. It plays an important role in seed development, maturation and dormancy. By making seeds dormant, ABA helps them survive drying out (desiccation) and other bad conditions. In most cases, ABA works against (antagonist to) GAs. For every stage of growth, differentiation and development, one PGR or another plays a role. They may help each other (complementary or synergistic), work against each other (antagonistic), or act alone (individualistic). For example, dormancy in seeds and buds, abscission, senescence and apical dominance each involve more than one PGR. Outside factors like temperature and light also control plant growth and development through PGRs. Events like vernalisation, flowering, dormancy, seed germination and plant movements come under this.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
★ Yaad rakho — quick revision★ याद रखो — झटपट दोहराव★ Yaad rakho — quick revision
- Growth = irreversible permanent increase in size; plants have open (indeterminate) growth due to meristems.वृद्धि = आकार में अपरिवर्तनीय स्थायी वृद्धि; विभज्योतकों के कारण पादपों में खुली (अनिश्चित) वृद्धि।Open growth.
- Maize root apical meristem > 17,500 cells/hour; watermelon cells up to 3,50,000 times larger.मक्का मूल शीर्ष विभज्योतक > 17,500 कोशिकाएँ/घंटा; तरबूज़ की कोशिकाएँ 3,50,000 गुना तक।17,500 / 3,50,000.
- Phases: meristematic → elongation → maturation. Sigmoid curve: lag → log → stationary.प्रावस्थाएँ: विभज्योतकी → दीर्घीकरण → परिपक्वन। सिग्मॉइड वक्र: पश्चता → लघुगणकीय → स्थिर।Lag-log-stationary.
- Arithmetic: Lt = L0 + rt; geometric: W1 = W0 eʳᵗ (r = relative growth rate = efficiency index).अंकगणितीय: Lt = L0 + rt; ज्यामितीय: W1 = W0 eʳᵗ (r = आपेक्षिक वृद्धि दर = दक्षता सूचकांक)।Formulas.
- Dedifferentiation: parenchyma → interfascicular/cork cambium. Plasticity: heterophylly in cotton, coriander, larkspur, buttercup.निर्विभेदन: मृदूतक → अंतरापूलीय/कॉर्क एधा। सुघट्यता: कपास, धनिया, लार्कस्पर, बटरकप में विषमपर्णता।Heterophylly.
- Discoveries: auxin — Darwins, Went (oat); GA — Kurosawa 1926 (bakane, Gibberella fujikuroi); kinetin — Skoog & Miller 1955; ABA — inhibitor-B/abscission II/dormin; ethylene — Cousins 1910.खोज: ऑक्सिन — डार्विन, वेन्ट (जई); GA — कुरोसावा 1926 (बकाने); काइनेटिन — स्कूग व मिलर 1955; ABA — इन्हिबिटर-B/एब्सिसिन II/डॉर्मिन; एथिलीन — कज़िन्स 1910।Discovery list.
- Auxin: rooting, apical dominance, parthenocarpy, 2,4-D herbicide. GA: bolting, grapes stalk, sugarcane +20 t/acre, malting. Cytokinin: cell division, delays senescence.ऑक्सिन: जड़ें, शीर्ष प्रभाविता, अनिषेकफलन, 2,4-D। GA: बोल्टिंग, अंगूर डंठल, गन्ना +20 टन/एकड़, माल्टिंग। साइटोकाइनिन: विभाजन, जीर्णता विलंब।PGR uses.
- Ethylene: fruit ripening (ethephon), abscission, female flowers in cucumber. ABA: stomatal closure, dormancy — stress hormone, GA antagonist.एथिलीन: फल पकाना (इथेफ़ॉन), विलगन, खीरे में मादा फूल। ABA: रंध्र बंद, प्रसुप्ति — तनाव हॉर्मोन, GA प्रतिपक्षी।Ethylene, ABA.
⚠ Common mistakes⚠ आम गलतियाँ⚠ Common mistakes
- Calling the swelling of dry wood or seeds in water “growth” — growth must be irreversible and involve metabolism.पानी में लकड़ी या बीज के फूलने को “वृद्धि” कहना — वृद्धि अपरिवर्तनीय और उपापचय सहित होनी चाहिए।Phoolna growth nahi.
- Saying kinetin is a natural plant hormone — it was obtained from autoclaved herring sperm DNA; zeatin is the natural cytokinin.काइनेटिन को प्राकृतिक हॉर्मोन कहना — यह हेरिंग शुक्राणु DNA से; प्राकृतिक साइटोकाइनिन ज़ियाटिन।Kinetin natural nahi.
- Saying auxin removes apical dominance — auxin causes it; cytokinin (and decapitation) overcomes it.ऑक्सिन से शीर्ष प्रभाविता हटना कहना — ऑक्सिन इसे बनाता; साइटोकाइनिन (और शीर्ष-छेदन) हटाता।Auxin = dominance.
- Mixing up the bolting hormone — gibberellin causes bolting; ethylene ripens fruit.बोल्टिंग हॉर्मोन में भ्रम — बोल्टिंग जिबरेलिन से; फल पकाना एथिलीन से।Bolting = GA.
- Calling ABA a growth promoter — it is a general growth inhibitor (stomatal closure, dormancy).ABA को वृद्धि वर्धक कहना — यह सामान्य वृद्धि निरोधक है।ABA inhibitor.
✎ NCERT questions — short answers✎ NCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तर✎ NCERT questions — short answers
NCERT exercises (tap a question to see the answer)NCERT अभ्यास (उत्तर देखने के लिए प्रश्न पर टैप करें)NCERT exercises (answer dekhne ke liye question par tap kijiye)
1. Define growth, differentiation, development, dedifferentiation, redifferentiation, determinate growth, meristem and growth rate.1. परिभाषित कीजिए: वृद्धि, विभेदन, परिवर्धन, निर्विभेदन, पुनर्विभेदन, निश्चित वृद्धि, विभज्योतक और वृद्धि दर।1. Definitions.
2. Why is not any one parameter good enough to demonstrate growth throughout the life of a flowering plant?2. पुष्पी पादप के पूरे जीवन में वृद्धि दिखाने के लिए कोई एक प्राचल पर्याप्त क्यों नहीं?2. Ek parameter kaafi kyon nahi?
3. Describe briefly: (a) Arithmetic growth (b) Geometric growth (c) Sigmoid growth curve (d) Absolute and relative growth rates3. संक्षेप में वर्णन कीजिए: (a) अंकगणितीय वृद्धि (b) ज्यामितीय वृद्धि (c) सिग्मॉइड वृद्धि वक्र (d) निरपेक्ष और आपेक्षिक वृद्धि दर3. Describe.
4. List five main groups of natural plant growth regulators. Write a note on discovery, physiological functions and agricultural/horticultural applications of any one of them.4. प्राकृतिक पादप वृद्धि नियामकों के पाँच मुख्य समूह लिखिए। किसी एक की खोज, कार्यिकीय कार्य और कृषि/उद्यानिकी उपयोग पर टिप्पणी लिखिए।4. 5 PGRs + note.
5. Why is abscisic acid also known as stress hormone?5. एब्सिसिक अम्ल को तनाव हॉर्मोन क्यों कहते हैं?5. ABA stress hormone kyon?
6. ‘Both growth and differentiation in higher plants are open’. Comment.6. ‘उच्च पादपों में वृद्धि और विभेदन दोनों खुले हैं’ — टिप्पणी कीजिए।6. Open growth & differentiation.
7. ‘Both a short day plant and a long day plant can produce flowers simultaneously in a given place’. Explain.7. ‘अल्प प्रदीप्तकाली और दीर्घ प्रदीप्तकाली दोनों पादप एक स्थान पर एक साथ पुष्पन कर सकते हैं’ — समझाइए।7. SDP aur LDP saath?
8. Which one of the plant growth regulators would you use if you are asked to: (a) induce rooting in a twig (b) quickly ripen a fruit (c) delay leaf senescence (d) induce growth in axillary buds (e) ‘bolt’ a rosette plant (f) induce immediate stomatal closure in leaves.8. किस पादप वृद्धि नियामक का उपयोग करेंगे: (a) टहनी में जड़ लाने (b) फल जल्दी पकाने (c) पत्ती जीर्णता विलंबित करने (d) कक्षस्थ कलिकाओं में वृद्धि (e) रोज़ेट पादप में ‘बोल्टिंग’ (f) पत्तियों में तुरंत रंध्र बंद करने?8. Kaunsa PGR?
9. Would a defoliated plant respond to photoperiodic cycle? Why?9. क्या पत्तीरहित पादप प्रकाशकालिक चक्र पर अनुक्रिया करेगा? क्यों?9. Bina patton ke photoperiod?
10. What would be expected to happen if: (a) GA₃ is applied to rice seedlings (b) dividing cells stop differentiating (c) a rotten fruit gets mixed with unripe fruits (d) you forget to add cytokinin to the culture medium.10. क्या होगा यदि: (a) धान के नवोद्भिद पर GA₃ डाला जाए (b) विभाजित कोशिकाएँ विभेदन बंद कर दें (c) सड़ा फल कच्चे फलों में मिल जाए (d) संवर्धन माध्यम में साइटोकाइनिन डालना भूल जाएँ।10. Kya hoga?
🎯 Quiz — 14 questions🎯 क्विज़ — 14 प्रश्न🎯 Quiz — 14 questions
Tap an option. The answer and a short reason appear at once.किसी विकल्प पर टैप करें। उत्तर और छोटा कारण तुरंत दिखेगा।Kisi option par tap kijiye. Answer aur chhota reason turant dikhega.
1. Plant growth is described as …पादप वृद्धि कैसी कहलाती है?Plant growth?
2. A maize root apical meristem can produce over … cells per hour.मक्का मूल शीर्ष विभज्योतक प्रति घंटे … से अधिक कोशिकाएँ।Maize cells/hour?
3. Lt = L0 + rt describes …Lt = L0 + rt किसे दर्शाता है?Lt = L0 + rt?
4. Formation of interfascicular cambium from parenchyma is …मृदूतक से अंतरापूलीय एधा बनना …Parenchyma → cambium?
5. Heterophylly in cotton and coriander is an example of …कपास व धनिया में विषमपर्णता उदाहरण है …Heterophylly?
6. Auxin was first isolated from …ऑक्सिन पहली बार किससे पृथक्?Auxin pehli baar?
7. Bakane disease of rice is caused by …धान का बकाने रोग किससे?Bakane?
8. 2,4-D is used to kill …2,4-D किसे नष्ट करने में?2,4-D?
9. Bolting in cabbage is caused by …पत्तागोभी में बोल्टिंग …Bolting?
10. Natural cytokinin zeatin was isolated from …प्राकृतिक साइटोकाइनिन ज़ियाटिन किससे?Zeatin?
11. Delay of leaf senescence is caused by …पत्ती जीर्णता में विलंब …Senescence delay?
12. Ethephon promotes … in cucumbers.इथेफ़ॉन खीरे में … बढ़ाता है।Ethephon cucumber?
13. The stress hormone is …तनाव हॉर्मोन है …Stress hormone?
14. Ethylene from ripe oranges hastening banana ripening was confirmed by …पके संतरों के एथिलीन से केले पकने की पुष्टि …Cousins?
Found a mistake?कोई गलती दिखी?Koi galti dikhi? Report a mistakeगलती बताइएGalti bataiye — we fix confirmed errors quickly.— पक्की गलतियाँ हम जल्दी ठीक करते हैं।— confirm galtiyan hum jaldi theek karte hain.
These are Simple Learning Hub's own study notes written to follow the NCERT Class 11 Biology textbook (2026-27 reprint of the rationalised edition) section by section; read them with the official NCERT chapter. Diagrams are original SLH drawings based on the NCERT figures they name.ये Simple Learning Hub के अपने स्टडी नोट्स हैं, जो NCERT कक्षा 11 जीव विज्ञान की किताब (2026-27) के हर अनुभाग के साथ लिखे गए हैं; इन्हें NCERT के आधिकारिक अध्याय के साथ पढ़िए। डायग्राम SLH के अपने बनाए चित्र हैं।Ye Simple Learning Hub ke apne study notes hain, jo NCERT Class 11 Biology ki kitaab (2026-27) ke har section ke saath likhe gaye hain; inhe NCERT ke official chapter ke saath padhiye. Diagrams SLH ki apni drawings hain.